GIS Data Models

Geographic information
Characteristics of Geographic Information
Location!
volume
Dimensionality
Point
Line
Area

Continuity
Feature
field

Building complex features

Simple geographic features can be
used to build more complex ones.
Areas are made up of lines which are
made up of points represented by
their coordinates.
Areas = {Lines} = {Points}

Properties of Features

size
distribution
pattern
contiguity
neighborhood
shape
scale
orientation.

Basic
properties
of
geographic
features

GIS Analysis
Much of GIS analysis and description
consists of investigating the
properties of geographic features
and determining the relationships
between them.

GIS Capability
A GIS package should be able to
move between

map projections,
coordinate systems,
datums, and
ellipsoids.

Draw a map of your

favorite place in Texas.

GIS Data Models

Maps as Numbers
GIS requires that both data and maps be
represented as numbers.
The GIS places data into the computers
memory in a physical data structure (i.e.
files and directories).
Files can be written in binary or as ASCII
text.
Binary is faster to read and smaller, ASCII
can be read by humans and edited but
uses more space.

The Data Model

A logical data model is how data are
organized for use by the GIS.
GISs have traditionally used either
raster or vector for maps.

Two approaches to handling

spatial data with GIS:
Raster model
Vector model
Points,
lines,
polygons

Features and Maps

A GIS map is a scaled-down digital
representation of point, line, area,
and volume features.
While most GIS systems can handle
raster and vector, only one is used
for the internal organization of
spatial data.

Rasters and vectors can be

flat files if they are simple
Vector-based line

Raster-based line

FlatFile
4753456623412
4753436623424
4753462623478
4753432623482
4753405623429
4753401623508
4753462623555
4753398623634
FlatFile
0000000000000000
0001100000100000
1010100001010000
1100100001010000
0000100010001000
0000100010000100
0001000100000010
0010000100000001
0111001000000001
0000111000000000
0000000000000000

A raster data model uses a

grid.
One grid cell is one unit or holds one attribute.
Every cell has a value, even if it is missing.
A cell can hold a number or an index value
standing for an attribute.
A cell has a resolution, given as the cell size in
ground units.

Raster GIS
Raster Data Model
Rows and Columns of Cells (Array)
Area of Cell equals Spatial Resolution
Value for each cell records type of object or
condition
Cells do not correspond to spatial entities in
real world

A road is a group of cells, not a single entity

Cells are considered Homogeneous Units

Two approaches to handling

spatial data with GIS:
Raster model
Vector model
Points,
lines,
polygons

Generic structure for a

grid
Grid extent

Rows

Grid
cell

Resolution
Columns
Figure 3.1 Generic structure for a grid.

Definitions
Raster - A format for storing, processing, and
displaying graphic data in which graphic
images are stored as values for uniform grid
cells or pixels.
Pixels - Abbreviation for picture element, the
smallest indivisible element that makes up
an image. In raster processing, data is
represented spatially on a matrix of grid
cells, called pixels, which are assigned values
for image characteristics or attributes.

More Definitions
Resolution - A measure of the accuracy or
detail of a graphic display, expressed as dots
per inch, pixels per line, lines per millimeter,
etc.
Spatial Resolution - The accuracy associated
with the capture of ground information as
reproduced in a digital format or graphic
display. For example, 10-foot pixels vs. 100foot pixels.

Definitions
Minimum Mapping Unit - The
smallest element we can uniquely
represent in our data.

Sources of Raster Data

Satellite data
LANDSAT
SPOT

Scanned aerial photography

Digital Orthophotography
Scanned maps and documents

From where do we get

Raster Data?
SCANNED Aerial photographs
photographs are NOT raster images but
SCANNED images ARE

SCANNED maps
Satellite images

From where are the data in

a raster cell taken?

Why does it matter where

the cell data come from?
Its hard to tell just by looking at the
image!

The mixed pixel problem

Water dominates

Winner takes all

Edges separate

W W

W G

W W

W W

W W

W G

Grids and missing data

Figure 3.8 GIS data layer as a grid with a large section of missing data, in this
case, the zeros in the ocean off of New York and New Jersey.

Why use Raster?

Overlay Analysis/Overlay Operations
Arithmetic Operations

Addition
Subtraction
Division
Multiplication

Logical (Boolean) Operations

Where conditions occur or do not occur
together
AND, OR, NOT, GT, LT, etc.

Raster GIS Applications

Integrate images to georeferenced
data
i.e., parcel deed image linked to parcel
centroid

Document Imaging
Natural Resource applications where:
Positional accuracy relaxed
Imagery-oriented

Raster Applications

Utility Corridor Siting

Environmental Mapping
Natural Communities Mapping
Forest resource planning
Spatial data variability decisions
Forest inventory
Wildlife habitat analysis

More Raster Applications

Wetlands Vegetation Inventory &
Analysis
Agricultural analysis
Planetary analysis (including lunar)
Vector Updating
Digital Terrain Modeling
Flood Control & Emergency Preparedness
Communication System Engineering

Any Technology has Pros & Cons

Raster Limitations
Aesthetics
Data storage requirements
Overlay operations performed on
every cell
Sparse data sets require as much
processing as dense ones

RASTER -- summary
A grid or raster maps directly onto a programming
computer memory structure called an array.
Grids are poor at representing points, lines and areas,
but good at surfaces.
Grids are good only at very localized topology, and
weak otherwise.
Grids are a natural for scanned or remotely sensed
data.
Grids suffer from the mixed pixel problem.
Grids must often include redundant or missing data.
Grid compression techniques used in GIS are runlength encoding and quad trees.

GIS Data Models

Rasters are faster, but...

Points and lines in raster format have to move to
a cell center.
Lines can become fat. Areas may need
separately coded edges.
Each cell can be owned by only one feature.
As data, all cells must be able to hold any cell
value.
It is very difficult to precisely position features
in space.

Vector GIS Data Model

Precisely position features in space
Points, Nodes, vertex, single X,Y
coordinate pair
Lines, Arcs, series of X,Y coordinate
pairs
Area, Polygons, area as a closed loop of
X,Y coordinate pairs

Areas are lines are points are

coordinates

The Vector Model

A vector data model uses points stored by their real (earth)
coordinates and so requires a precise coordinate system.
Geographic Coordinate System
Latitude/Longitude

Cartesian Coordinate Systems

X,Y Coordinate system
State Plane
UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator)

Lines and areas are built from sequences of points in order.

Lines have a direction to the ordering of the points.
Polygons can be built from points or lines.
Vectors can store information about topology.

Raster/Vector Comparison

VECTOR
At first, GISs used vector data and cartographic
spaghetti structures.

Collection of coordinate strings with no structure

Cartesian coordinates stored in data structure
No spatial relationships stored
Inefficient data storage technique

Vector data evolved the arc/node model in the

1960s.
In the arc/node model, an area consist of lines
and a line consists of points.
Points, lines, and areas can each be stored in
their own files, with links between them.

13

11

2
9

12

10

POLYGON A 5
4
2

1xy
2xy
3xy
4xy
5xy
6xy
7xy
8xy
9xy
10 x y
11 x y
12 x y
13 x y

Points File

Arc/node map data structure with

files

File of Arcs by Polygon

A:1,2, Area, Attributes

11,2,3,4,5,6,7
21,8,9,10,11,12,13,7
Arcs File

Figure 3.4 Arc/Node Map Data Structure with Files.

 The topological vector model uses the line (arc)

as a basic unit. Areas (polygons) are built up from
arcs.
The endpoint of a line (arc) is called a node. Arc
junctions are only at nodes.
Stored with the arc is the topology (i.e. the
connecting arcs and left and right polygons).

Vectors
TIN must be used to represent volumes.
Vector can represent point, line, and area
features very accurately.
Vectors work well with pen and light-plotting
devices and tablet digitizers.
Vectors are not good at continuous coverages or
plotters that fill areas.

Topological Model
Topology: mathematical method to
define spatial relationships
Arc-node data model
Arc: a series of points that start and end
at a node
Node: an intersection point where two
or more arcs meet

Topological Data Spatial

Operations
Contiguity: spatial relationship of
adjacency
i.e., stand of coniferous trees adjacent
to deciduous trees

Connectivity: interconnected
pathways or networks
i.e., street and trail networks, stream
networks

Basic arc topology

n2
A

n1

B
Topological Arcs File

Arc
1

From To PL PR n1x n1y n2x n2y

n1 n2 A B x y
x y

Figure 3.5 A topological structure for the arcs.

TOPOLOGY
Topological data structures dominate GIS software.
Topology allows automated error detection and
elimination.
Rarely are maps topologically clean when digitized
or imported.
A GIS has to be able to build topology from
unconnected arcs.
Nodes that are close together are snapped.
Slivers due to double digitizing and overlay are
eliminated.

Slivers

Sliver

Unsnapped node

Topology Matters
The tolerances controlling snapping,
elimination, and merging must be
considered carefully, because they can
move features.
Complete topology makes map
overlay feasible.
Topology allows many GIS operations
to be done without accessing the point
files.

Vectors and 3D
Volumes (surfaces) are structured with the
Triangulated Irregular Network model,
including edge or triangle topology.
TINs use an optimal Delaunay
triangulation of a set of irregularly
distributed points.
TINs are popular in CAD and surveying
packages.

TIN: Triangulated Irregular

Network
Way to handle field
data with the
vector data
structure.
Common in some
GISs and most
AM/FM packages.
More efficient than
a grid.

Sources of Vector Data

RASTER-VECTOR conversions from
scanned images
Pre-existing digital data from disks or
internet
DIGITIZING

Vector to raster to vector

conversion

Comparison: Raster and

Vector

FORMATS
Most GIS systems can import
different data formats, or use utility
programs to convert them.
Data formats can be industry
standard, commonly accepted or
standard.

Vector Data Formats

Vector formats are either page
definition languages or preserve
ground coordinates.
Page languages are HPGL, PostScript,
and Autocad DXF.
True vector GIS data formats are DLG
and TIGER, which has topology.

Raster Data Formats

Most raster formats are digital image
formats.
Most GISs accept TIF, GIF, JPEG or
encapsulated PostScript, which are
not georeferenced.
DEMs are true raster data formats.

EXCHANGE
Most GISs use many formats and one data structure.
If a GIS supports many data structures, changing structures
becomes the users responsibility.
Changing vector to raster is easy; raster to vector is hard.
Data also are often exchanged or transferred between
different GIS packages and computer systems.
The history of GIS data exchange is chaotic and has been
wasteful.

Vector to raster exchange

errors

Transfer Standards

GIS Data Exchange

Data exchange by translation (export and import) can lead to

significant errors in attributes and in geometry.
In the United States, the SDTS was evolved to facilitate data
transfer.
SDTS became a federal standard (FIPS 173) in 1992.
SDTS contains a terminology, a set of references, a list of
features, a transfer mechanism, and an accuracy standard.
Both DLG and TIGER data are available in SDTS format.
Other standards efforts are DIGEST, DX-90, the Tri-Service Spatial
Data Standards, and many other international standards.
Efficient data exchange is important for the future of GIS.

Attribute data
Attribute data are stored logically in flat files.
A flat file is a matrix of numbers and values
stored in rows and columns, like a spreadsheet.
Both logical and physical data models have
evolved over time.
DBMSs use many different methods to store and
manage flat files in physical files.