Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Objectives:
Understand forces responsible for driving fluid
through reservoir
Be aware of models available to represent
reservoir and wells
Assess flow properties of reservoir
Introduce concepts used in welltesting

Summary
Fluid flow depends on:

reservoir geometry
reservoir fluids
reservoir properties

Two methods to represent fluid flow:

analytical solutions to diffusivity

equation
approximation methods to diffusivity
equation
finite difference/ finite element
simulations

Summary
Solutions to be
examined:

Introduction
Objective to understand mechanism of fluid
migration in order to understand and improve
recovery from the reservoir.
Similar in concept to flow in pipes
General energy equation not applicable
because of geometry, interconnections etc.
Dimensions give rise to scaling problem
capillary forces become relatively important
(over viscous forces)

Introduction
Surface chemistry effects between minerals
and fluids
Main effect is time taken for fluid to move from
high to low pressure regions
If similar to large body of water, then pressure
same at every point at all times
If rapid equilibration, then Darcys Law would
be applicable

Introduction
Illustrated with model:

10 tubes representing section of reservoir from

wellbore into reservoir
Initially no flow and all tubes at same height
Flow initiated and fluid expands
Pressure profile develops as fluid expansion
migrates along model

Introduction
Illustrated with model:

Unusual situation where although hydraulically

connected, pressure varies along tubes

Time taken for pressure wave to move along

tubes

Restrictions at base of tubes limits flow and

mimics flow through pore structure

Initial steady state, no flow

Flow initiated at constant rate

Pressure profile develops

Pressure disturbance reaches outer

boundary
Sealed therefore the pressure in system
drops

Well shut in and pressure builds in

well

Steady state, no flow

Initial pressure profile is transient note back

end of model still at initial pressure condition
even though pressure has fallen in tubes
nearest fluid exit
Pressure profile develops through model until
the back tube is hit, then the entire system
depressurises. Transition to semi-steady state.
If fluid entered the system at the back end of
the model at the same rate as it outflowed,
there would be a second steady state flow
regime, i.e. the pressure in the back end tube
would not change.
In this case the pressure in the model declines
once the fluid at the back end has started to
flow since there is no inflow, this is a special
case of transient flow called semi steady state.
The gradient remains constant; the absolute

The model can be seen to continue to flow after

the well has been shut in. The fluid in the
reservoir is still trying to reach equilibrium.
A major feature of this system is the appreciable
time taken to change from one steady state to a
second steady (or semi-steady) state.
This time dependence may be significant in real
reservoirs, where the areal extent of the
reservoir is such that it may take decades to
equilibrate, or indeed there may never be
equilibration.

Characterisation and Modelling of

Flow Patterns
Complex patterns:
shapes of oil bearing formations irregular
heterogeneous formation properties:
porosity, permeability, saturation
(saturation of hydrocarbons may
vary
throughout the formation leading
to
variations in rel perm)
deviated wellbores through reservoir
varying production rates from different
wells
in general high rate wells drain
larger areas
many wells do not fully penetrate the
reservoir

Essentially two possibilities to cope with

complexities:

drainage area of well subdivided into

small blocks which represent the variations in
properties
series of complex equations describing
fluid flow solved by numerical or seminumerical
methods

single block which preserves global

features
and heterogenities fluid
properties averaged or substituted by simple
relationship or pattern
of features (like
fracture pattern)- which allows
analytical
solution

Idealised Flow Patterns

Linear, radial, spherical, hemispherical
Linear and radial of most use
Assume oil system with cp<<1, i.e. small and
constant compressibility
If gas reservoir, compressibility must be
accounted for (by gas pseudo-functions for
example)

General Case

Flow velocity, U
Resolved into x, y, z directions

The components of the flow velocity vector, U

are:

Ux = -(kx/)(P/x)
Uy = -(ky/)(P/y)
Uz = -(kz/)(P/z+g)
k = permeability (m2) in the direction of X, Y, Z. The Z direction has
an
elevation term, g, included to account for the
change in head.
P = pressure (Pa)
= viscosity (Pas)
= density (kg/m3)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
U = flow velocity (m/s) = (m3/s/m2)

Linear Horizontal Model of a Single Phase

Fluid
flowrate, q
out
dx
area, A
x=L
x+dx
porosity,

X axis

x
flowrate, q
in

x=0
isometric view

dx
flowrate, q
in

x=0

flowrate, q
out

x+dx
X axis
plan view

x=L

Flow along x direction, no flow in y or z

directions
Flow into cuboid at left, out of cuboid at right
Total length, L
Rock 100% saturated with one fluid
Flow equations:

k
U x

t
x

0xL

k = permeability (in the X direction), (mD)

= density, (kg/m3)
U = flow velocity (m/s)
t = time (s)
= porosity
= viscosity, Pas
P = pressure, Pa
x = distance, (m)

Fluid flows in at position x=0, out at x=L.

Element from x to position x+dx is examined.
The bulk volume of the element is the product
of the area, A and the length, dx, i.e. bulk
volume = A*dx.
The pore volume of element is product of the
bulk volume and the porosity, , i.e. pore
volume = A*dx*
If flow steady state then the flowrates into and
out of the volume (qin and qout) would be
identical and Darcys Law would apply.

Fluid Flow in Porous Media

If the flow rates vary from the inlet of the
volume to the outlet, i.e. qin qout then either:
fluid is accumulating in the element and qin >
qout
or:
fluid is depleting from the element qout > qin
(which is possible in a pressurised system since
the pressure of the fluid in the element may
reduce causing it to expand and produce a
higher flow rate out of the element)

Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Therefore, there is a relationship between the change in mass,
m, along the cuboid and the change in density, , over time as
the mass accumulates or depletes from any element. In terms
of mass flowrate,
Mass flow rate through the area, A
((m3/s)*(kg/m3) = kg/s)
Mass flow rate through the area, A at position x

= q

Mass flow rate through the area, A at position x+dx

(q)x+dx
Mass flowrate into a volume element at x minus
mass flowrate out of element at x + dx
(q)x+ dx

= (q)x
=

=(q)x-

The mass flow rate out of the element is also equal to the rate of change of
mass flow in the element, i.e.

q x dx
Change in mass flow rate
=

q
q x
* dx
x

q
* dx
x

(if change is +ve, element accumulating mass, if ve depleting mass)

This must equal rate of change of mass in element with volume A*dx*
Rate of change of mass equal to A dx
t

hence

=A
x
t

flow velocity, U = q/A, therefore

t
x
or

t
x
Substitution of parameters gives

k P

x x
t

Equation shows areal change in pressure linked

to temporal change in density. Measure pressure
easier than density, therefore use isothermal
compressibility to convert to pressure
1 V
c= (
)
V P
T

m(),hence:
The density equals mass per unit volume

(m/ )
1

c=
= ; (Quotient Rule, constant
mass system)
P
m P

Since

P
(from above)
=
=c
t
P t
t

then
P
k P

= c

t
x x

P
k P

= c

t
x x

Partial differential equation for linear flow of any

single phase fluid in porous medium relates
spatial and temporal variations in pressure
In core relates pressure distribution along core
during flooding, during all time, i.e. from start of
flood to staedy state conditions
In linear reservoir where aquifer flows into
reservoir as production proceeds
But, non-linear because of pressure dependence
of density, compressibility and viscosity.
Simple linearisation follows

Linearisation of Fluid Flow Equation

Assume permeability and viscosity are
independent of location
P
P
( )=(c/k)
x x
t

The left hand side can be

expanded to:

P
+ P/ x 2)
x x

and since
Using equation 2.4

P
x =P x

the above becomes

c(P/x)2+(2P/x2).

c(P/x)2 is neglected compared to 2P/x2 since pressure gradient small,

substituting gives
2P
x 2

=(

c
k

P
t

assumption that compressibility small and

constant
coefficients c/k are constant and equation
linearised
(k/c) termed diffusivity constant
assume cp<<1 for oil systems
saturation weighted compressibility
c=coSo+cwSwc+cf
c= saturation weighted compressibility
co = compressibility of oil
cw= compressibility of connate water
cf =compressibility of formation
So= oil saturation
Swc= connate water saturation

Conditions of Solution
Initial conditions
at time t=o, intial pressure Pi specified for every
value of x
Boundary conditions
at end faces x-0, x=L flow rate or pressure
specified for every value of x
solutions of linear diffusivity equation for linear
flow from aquifers

Radial Model

Radial model for

cylindrical reservoir ,
constant thickness, h

Distance, r from x-axis, flow velocity, U now radius

dependent:
U = q/2rh
From Darcys Law,

k P
U= r

The mass balance

gives:

(q)

rh
=2

r
t

Eliminating U and q through equations gives the non linear equation:

P

k P
r =c
r
t
r r
1

Making assumptions as for linear flow, linearises the equation to:

c P
1 P
(r )=

r r r
k t

Range of Application
applied to water influx and wellbore production
water encroachment - inner boundary
corresponds to mean radius of reservoir, outer
boundary mean radius of aquifer
wellbore pressure regime - inner boundary is
wellbore radius, rw, outer boundary is the
boundary of the drainage area.
values of rw
open hole drilled close to gauge: 1/2 bit
diameter
well cased cemented, perforated: 1/2 bit
diameter
slotted liner with gravel pack: 1/2 OD of liner
out of gauge hole: average radius from caliper

Condition of Solution
Initial: t=o, Pi specified at all locations
Outer boundary:
a) no flow: p/r = 0, flow velocity =o
b) flow: p/r not equal to zero,
pressure maintained at boundary
Inner boundary:
constant terminal rate
production rate constant at well
aquifer influx constant
constant terminal pressure
BHP constant
aquifer pressure constant, influx
varies

Characterisation of flow regimes

based on time
transient
semi-steady state
steady state
Steady State: pressure and rate distribution in
reservoir constant with time
Unsteady State (transient): pressure and/or rate
vary with time
Semi-Steady State: special case of unsteady
state which resembles steady state
Working solutions need to refer to the
appropriate flow regime

CTR for radial models

flow rate constant
oil flowing to fully perforated well
aquifer encroachment
radial flow of single phase fluid from outer
radius b to inner radius a
assuming right hollow cylinder of homogeneous
medium
for a well, a is rw, b is re (external boundary
radius)
flow rate, q is constant at wellbore
for aquifer, a is mean reservoir radius, b mean
aquifer radius, q volume flow rate of water

The radial constant terminal rate case is determined by the

following system of equations:

c P
1 P

(r
)=
r r r
k t

2rkh p

; a r b

; r =a

(3.1)
(3.2)

with the initial condition that the pressure at all points is constant
a r b, t = o; P=Pi = constant
(3.3)
and the boundary conditions that at the wellbore the flowrate is constant
after the production starts

r=a, t 0 : q = constant
(3.4)

and at the outer boundary, the pressure is either a constant (and equal to
the initial pressure) in the case of pressure maintenance

r=b, t 0 : P = Pi = constant
(3.5a)

or there is a sealing boundary with no flow across it in which case the

pressure gradient at the boundary is zero

P
r=b,t0: =0
r

Solution to equations well known: Mathews and

Russell, SPE monograph - very complex
solutions - asymptotic solutions fair
approximations of general solution
Problem to identify flow regime
Steady state is simplest
Non-steady state involves time element

(3.5b)

Steady State Solution

pressure at outer boundary, re, constant
flow rate, q, constant
p/t = 0 for all values of radius, r, and time, t.
P dP

r dr

dr 2kh
q
and the flow equation becomes
dP
r

integratingbetweenthelimitsrwandrgives:

q r
P P
ln

w 2 kh r

Integrating between the limits

r
re gives:
w and

q r
P P
ln e
e w 2kh r
w

(3.6)

(3.7)

same as Darcys Law

Definition of pressure at external radius, re :
difficult to determine, use average reservoir
pressure,
Defined by area drained by each well in a
reservoir.
Found by well test analysis and routine bottom
hole pressure measurements

1 re

P PdV
V rw
(3.8a)

rhdr
wheredV=2

(3.8b)

2rw2)h
The volume of the wells drainage zone,
V,(re=

and considering rw<<re,Vre2 h

2 re
P 2 Prdr
r e rw
fromequation3.6,
q r
ln

P Pw
2kh rw
q r
2 re

ln
P 2 Pw
rdr

rw
2
kh
r
w
re
2 q re r

ln
P - Pw
rdr
2
re 2kh rw rw
2 q

P - Pw 2

2
kh
re

1 2 r
r ln
rw
2

re

rw

1 r2

dr
rw r 2
re

2 q re2 re r2w rw re2 r 2w

ln ln
P - Pw 2

2 rw 2 rw 4 4
2
kh
re

assuming r w is negligible
4

2 q

P - Pw 2

2
kh
re

r e2 re r 2e
ln
2 rw 4

q re 1
ln

2 kh rw 2

P - Pw

(3.10)

Example1.Awellproducesoilataconstantflowrateof15stocktankcubicmetresperday
(stm3/d).UsethefollowingdatatocalculatethepermeabilityinmilliDarcys(mD).

Data

porosity,
19%
formationvolumefactorforoil,Bo
1.3rm3/stm3(reservoircubicmetersperstock
tankcubic meter)
netthicknessofformation,h,
40m
viscosityofreservoiroil,
22x103Pas
wellboreradius,rw
0.15m
externalradius,re
350m
initialreservoirpressure,Pi
98.0bar
bottomholeflowingpressure,Pwf 93.5bar
qreservoir=qstocktankxBo
1bar=105Pa

Solution

thesteadystateinflowequation(accountingforfluidflowrateat
reservoirconditionsinm3/sandpressureinPa)is

qBo re
Pe Pwf
ln

2kh rw
r
qB o
ln e
2 (Pe Pwf )h rw

350.00
15x22x10 3 x1.3

k
ln
24x3600x2x(98.0 93.5)x105 x40 0.15
341x10 15 m 2
341mD
k

Unsteady State Flow Regimes

Dimensionless variables
normalised parameters
define solution to diffusivity equation for dimensionless
variables
determine solution
calculate specific reservoir values from dimensionless
r
dimensionless radius,
D r
:
rD
solution
rw

tD

kt
crw2

dimensionless time,
D t

dimensionless
pressure, P
D

: PD (rD , t D ) (

2kh
)(Pi Pr, t )

(at a dimensionless radius and dimensionless time)

where
r = radius in question
rw = wellbore radius
k = permeability
t = time in question

=porosity

=viscosity

c = compressibility
h = thickness of the reservoir
Pi = initial reservoir pressure
Pr,t = pressure at the specified radius and time
then the radial diffusivity equation becomes

PD PD
1
r
D
rD rD
rD
tD

(3.11)

There are other definitions of dimensionless variables, such as

dimensionless external radius

Unsteady State Solution

CTR solution obtained in several forms with
different assumptions and mathematical
analyses
General considerations

Wellbore pressure and flow rate response

Pressure decline normally divided into 3
sections depending on the value of flowing time
and reservoir geometry.
Initially, transient solution infinite acting
reservoir case reservoir appears infinite in
extent
Late transient boundaries start to affect the
response
Semi-steady state or pseudo-steady state
pressure perturbation affecting all parts of the
reservoir no influx from aquifer

Hurst and van Everdingen Solution

CTR solution in 1949
Solved radial diffusivity using Laplace transform for both CTR and
CTP
Solution describes pressure drop as function of time and radius for
fixed values of re and rw rock and fluid properties.
Dimensionless variables and parameters:
PD = f(tD,rD,reD)
where
tD = dimensionless time
rD = dimensionless radius
reD = re/rw = dimesionless external radius.

If the reservoir is fixed in size, i.e. reD is a particular value,

then the dimensionless pressure drop, PD, is a function of the dimensionless
time, tD and dimensionless radius, rD.
The pressure in a particular reservoir case can then be calculated at any
time and/or radius.
One of the most significant cases is at the wellbore since the pressure can
be measured routinely during production operations and compared to the
theoretical solutions.
The determination of a reservoir pressure at a location remote from a well
may be required for reasons of technical interest, but unless a well is drilled
at that location, the actual value cannot be measured.

At the wellbore radius, r=r

w (or rD=1.0)
PD = f(tD, reD)

(3.13)
2m t D

2t D
3
e
J
1 ( m reD )
i.e.PD (t D ) 2 lnreD 2 2 2
2
m 1 m ( J1 ( m reD ) J1 ( m ))
reD
4

(3.14)

where
m are the roots ofJ 1 ( m reD )Y1 ( m ) J 1 ( m )Y1 ( m reD ) 0
J 1 and Y1 are Bessel functions of the first and second kind

This series has been evaluated for several values of dimensionless

external radius, reD, over a wide range of values of dimensionless time,
tD. The results are presented in the form of tables (from Chatas, AT, A
Practical Treatment of non-steady state Flow Problems in Reservoir
Systems, Pet. Eng. August 1953) in Well Testing by J Lee, SPE
Textbook series, Vol 1. A summary of the use of the tables for constant
terminal rate problems is as follows in Table 1.

Table

Presents

Validfor

P D asafunctionoft

ii

P 2

P 0.5(lnt
D

iii

0.80907) for100<t

(anextensionofthetable)

iv

P D asafunctionoft

ii

infiniteactingreservoirs

infiniteactingreservoirs

D <0.25r eD

P D asafunctionoft

2 t

0.25

r2 1

D for1.5<r

3r

4
eD

(fromtable)

finitereservoirs

2t
r

eD

lnr

eD

eD

<10(fromtable)

eD

2r 2 1

4 r 2 1

eD

finitereservoirs,butif
thevalueoft D issmaller
thanthatlistedfora
givenvalueofr
eD then
thereservoirisinfinite
actingandthereforetable
2isused.
finitereservoirs

finitereservoirs

eD

for 25 t D and0.25r
P

eD

4r 4 lnr

eD

iii

D <0.25r eD

infiniteactingreservoirs

fort D <0.01(anextensionofthetable)

D <1000(fromtable)

3
4

2
eD

t
D

2
for r eD > 1

Table1HurstandVanEverdingensolutionstotheConstantTerminalRateCase

These equations are applicable to a well flowing at a constant

rate or to a reservoir and aquifer with a constant flowrate across
the oil water contact.
Most problems involving flow at a well involve relationship 2(iii)
and 3(iii);
most problems involving aquifer influx involve Tables 8 and 9.
It can be seen that in using these solutions, the pressure can be
calculated anywhere in the reservoir as long as the flow rate is
known.
If the pressure in the reservoir at a location where the flow rate is
unknown is required then an alternative solution is needed (the
Line Source solution).

Example2.Areservoirataninitialpressure,Piof83.0barproducestoawell15cm
in diameter. The reservoir external radius is 150m. Use the following data to
calculatethepressureatthewellboreafter0.01hour,0.1hour,1hour,10hoursand
100hoursofproductionat23stm3/d

Data

porosity,
21%
formationvolumefactorforoil,Bo
1.13rm3/stm3
netthicknessofformation,h
53m
viscosityofreservoiroil,
10x103Pas
wellboreradius,rw
0.15m
externalradius,re
150m
initialreservoirpressure,Pi
83.0bar
permeability,k
140mD
compressibility,c
0.2x107Pa1

Solution

UsingHurstandVanEverdingenssolutionforCTR,the
dimensionlessexternalradiusandthedimensionlesstimeare
calculatedandusedwiththe appropriatesolutiontodeterminethe
dimensionlesspressuredrop.Thedimensionlesspressuredropis
thenturnedintotherealpressuredropfromwhichthebottomhole
flowingpressureiscalculated.

r
150.00
1000
reD e
rw
0.15

kt
140x10-15 xt

0.148t
tD
crw2 0.21x10x10-3 x0.2x10 7 x0.152

time
time
t D
P D
(hour)
(second) (0.148t)
0.01
36
5.3 1.3846
0.10
360
53.3 2.4146
1.00
3600
532.8 3.5473
10.00
36000
5328.0 4.6949
100.00
360000 53280.0 5.8462

thebottomholeflowingpressure,Pwfis

Pwf Pi

expression

table2
table2
table2
0.5(lntD+0.80907)
0.5(lntD+0.80907)

qBo
PD
2kh

Pwf at 0.01hour

23x10x10 3 x1.13
83.0x10
x1.3846 = 82.1x10 5 Pa
15
24x3600x2 140x10 x53
5

i.e.Pwfat0.01hour=82.1bar

similarlyfortherestofthetimes

time
P D
Pwf
(hour)

(bar)
0.00 0
83.0
0.01 1.3846
82.1
0.10 2.4146
81.4
1.00 3.5473
80.7
10.00 4.6949
80.0
100.00 5.8462
79.2

Line Source Solution

Assumes radius at wellbore is vanishingly small
allows calculationof the pressure in the reservoir
using the flowrate at the well
Disadvantage is that only works in Transient Flow
Regime
Barriers alter applicability of Line Source Solution
However, principle of superposition allows
combination of different wells and use of imaginary
wells to compensate for the effect of barriers

Inconstantterminalrateproblems,theflowrateatthewellwasgivenby
2rhk P

q
r

r r w

andforalinesource,thefollowingboundaryconditionmusthold:
lim p
q
fortime,t>0.
r

r 0 r 2 kh

(3.15)

UsingtheBoltzmanTransformation
c P
1 P
cr 2
y
andsubstitutingintothediffusivityequation( r r(r r )= k t )
4kt

gives
d 2 p dp
y 2
(1 y) 0
dy
dy
withtheboundaryconditions
ppiasy
lim
p
q
2y

y 0 y 2 kh

If p'
y

dp
then
dy

dp'
(1 y)p' 0
dy

Separatingthevariablesandintegratinggives
lnp=lnyy+C
dp C1 y
p'

e
i.e.

dy
y
whereCandC1areconstantsofintegration.Since
q
andequation3.16becomes
4kh
dp
q e y

whichisintegratedtogive
dy 4 kh y

then C1

q e y
p
dy C2 or
4 kh y

q e y
p
dy C2

4 kh y y

(3.16)

lim
p
q
lim
2y

2C1 e y
y 0 y 2 kh y 0

whichcanberewrittenas
q
p
Ei(y) C 2
4 kh
ApplyingtheboundaryconditionthatppiasythenC2=piandthelinesource
solutionisobtained:
pi p(r,t)

q
cr 2
Ei(

4kh
4kt

(3.17)

ThetermEi(y)istheexponentialintegralofy(theEifunction)whichisexpressedas

e y
Ei( y)
dy .
y
y

Itcanbecalculatedfromtheseries
yn

Ei( y) lny
n!n
where=0.5772157(EulersConstant).OninspectionofthesimilaritiesintheEi
functionandthelnfunction,itcanbeseenthatwheny<0.01, Ei( y) lny andthe
powertermscanbeneglected.Therefore,
Ei( y) ln(1.781y) = ln(y )
( 1.781 = e e 0 .5 7 7 2 15 7)

Solutionstotheexponentialintegralcanbecodedintoaspreadsheetandusedwiththe
linesourcesolution.Practically,theexponentialintegralcanbereplacedbyasimpler
logarithmfunctionaslongasitisrepresentativeofthepressuredecline.Thelimitation
25cr 2
thaty<0.01correspondstotime,t,fromthestartofproduction t
.
k

Theequationcanbeappliedanywhereinthereservoir,butisofsignificanceatthe
wellbore(i.e.forwelltestanalysis)wheretypicalvaluesofwellboreradius,rw,and
reservoirfluidandrockparametersusuallymeansthaty<0.01veryshortlyafter
productionstarts.Thereforethelinesourcesolutioncanbeapproximatedby
q
cr 2
P Pi
(ln
)
4kh
4kt

or,sinceln(y)=ln(y1)
P Pi

q
4kt
(ln
2 )
4kh
cr

andifthepressureinthewellboreisofinterest,
q
4kt
Pwf Pi
(ln
2)
4kh
crw

(3.18)

(3.19)

ThevaluesofexponentialintegralhavebeencalculatedandpresentedinMatthewsand
RusselsMonographandareproducedinTable4.Thetablepresentsnegativevalues,i.e.
Ei(y).Forvaluesofy0.01,thelnapproximationcanbeused.Forvalues>10.9,the
declineinpressurecalculatedisnegligible.

Range of Application and Limitations

of Use
Ei function has limitations on application
cannot represent the initial flow into wellbore
(line
source)
reservoir must be infinite acting
Analysis of real reservoirs has shown that Ei function
valid for
i) flowing time> 100crw2/k
rw is wellbore radius. constant 100 derived from
reservoir response
ii) time< cre2/4k
re is external radius, after this time, infinite acting
period has ended

Example3.Awellandreservoiraredescribedbythefollowingdata:

Data

porosity,

19%
3
3
formationvolumefactorforoil,Bo 1.4rm /stm
netthicknessofformation,h
100m
3
viscosityofreservoiroil,
1.4x10 Pas
9
1
compressibility,c

2.2x10 Pa
permeability,k

100mD
wellboreradius,rw

0.15m
externalradius,re

900m
initialreservoirpressure,Pi
400bar
159
3
3
wellflowrate(constant)

159stm /day=
stm /second
24x3600
skinfactor

Determinethefollowing:

1)thewellboreflowingpressureafter4hoursproduction
2)thepressureinthereservoirataradiusof9mafter4hoursproduction
3)thepressureinthereservoirataradiusof50mafter4hoursproduction
4)thepressureinthereservoirataradiusof50mafter50hoursproduction

Solution

The line source solution is used to determine the pressures required at

the specified radii and at the specified times (i.e. using the flowrate
measuredatthewellbore,thepressuresattheotherradiiandtimesare
calculatedbythelinesourcesolution).SIunitswillbeusedsotimewill
beconvertedtoseconds.Checksaremadetoensurethat:

i)therehasbeenadequatetimesincethestartofproductiontoallowthe
linesourcesolutiontobeaccurate
ii)thereservoirisinfiniteacting.

Thereafter, the choice of Ei function or ln approximation to the Ei

functionhastobemade.

ACheckEiapplicability

linesourcenotaccurateuntil
100crw2
t

k
3
9
2
100x0.19x1.4x10 x2.2x10 x0.15
t

100x1015
t>13.2s
timeis4hours,thereforelinesourceisapplicable.

BCheckreservoirisinfiniteacting

cre2
thereservoirisinfiniteactingifthetime, t

4k
0.19x1.4x10 3 x2.2x109 x900 2
i.e. t

15
4x100x10
t<1185030s
t<329hours

thereforelinesourcesolutionisapplicable.

1)thebottomholeflowingpressureafter4hoursproduction,Pwfat4hours

i)checklnapproximationtoEifunction

25crw2
thelnapproximationisvalidifthetime, t

k
3
9
2
25x0.19x1.4x10 x2.2x10 x0.15
t

100x10 15
t>3.3s
thereforelnapproximationisvalid.

qBo crw2
(taking account of the conversion from stock tank to
ln
ii) Pwf Pi
4 kh 4kt
reservoir conditions via the formation volume factor for oil, B o, flow rates in reservoir
3
m /sandpressuresinPascal).

qBo
159x1.4x103 x1.4

=28703
15
4kh 24x3600x4 x100x10 x100

cr 2 0.19x1.4x10 3 x2.2x10 9 r 2
9 2

=101597x10 r
15
4kt
4x100x10 x4x3600

Pwf

=400x10 +28703xln(1.781x101597x10 x0.15 )

5
=400x10 356249
=39643751Pa
=396.4bar

2)thepressureafter4hoursproductionataradiusof9mfromthewellbore

i)checklnapproximationtoEifunction

25cr 2
thelnapproximationisvalidifthetime, t

k
3
9
2
25x0.19x1.4x10 x2.2x10 x9
t

100x1015
t>11850s
t>3.3hours
thereforelnapproximationisvalid.

2
qBo cr
(taking account of the conversion from stock tank to
ln
ii) P Pi
4 kh 4kt

reservoirconditionsviatheformationvolumefactorforoil,B o andalsothefactthatthe
radius,r,isnowat9mfromthewellbore).

qBo
159x1.4x103 x1.4

=28703
15
4kh 24x3600x4 x100x10 x100

cr 2 0.19x1.4x10 3 x2.2x10 9 r 2
9 2

=101597x10 r
15
4kt
4x100x10 x4x3600

=400x10 +28703xln(1.781x101597x10 x9 )
5
=400x10 121209
=39878791Pa
=398.8bar

3)thepressureafter4hoursproductionataradiusof50mfromthewellbore

i)checklnapproximationtoEifunction

25cr 2
thelnapproximationisvalidifthetime, t

k
25x0.19x1.4x10 3 x2.2x109 x502
t

100x1015
t>365750s
t>101.6hours
thereforelnapproximationisnotvalidandtheEifunctionisused.

2
qBo cr
Ei
ii) P Pi
(taking account of the conversion from stock tank to
4 kh
4kt

reservoirconditionsviatheformationvolumefactorforoil,Bo andalsothefactthatthe
radius,r,isnowat50mfromthewellbore).

q Bo
159x1.4x103 x1.4

=28703
15
4kh 24x3600x4 x100x10 x100

cr 2 0.19x1.4x10 3 x2.2x10 9 502

=0.254
15
4kt
4x100x10 x4x3600

P
=400x10 +28703xEi(0.254)

Ei(0.254)=1.032(bylinearinterpolationofthevaluesinTable4)

5
P
=400x10 +28703x1.032
5

=400x10 29622

=39970378Pa

=399.7bar

4)thepressureafter50hoursproductionataradiusof50mfromthewellbore

i)checklnapproximationtoEifunction

2
25cr
thelnapproximationisvalidifthetime, t

k
25x0.19x1.4x10 3 x2.2x109 x502
t

15
100x10
t>365750s
t>101.6hours
thereforelnapproximationisnotvalidandtheEifunctionisused.

2
qBo cr
(taking account of the conversion from stock tank to
Ei
ii) P Pi
4 kh 4kt

reservoirconditionsviatheformationvolumefactorforoil,B o andalsothefactthatthe
radius, r, is now at 50m from the wellbore and the time is now 50hours after start of
production).

q Bo
159x1.4x103 x1.4

=28703
15
4kh 24x3600x4 x100x10 x100

cr 2 0.19x1.4x10 3 x2.2x10 9 502

=0.020
4kt
4x100x10 15 x50x3600

P
=400x10 +28703xEi(0.020)

Ei(0.020)=3.355

5
P
=400x10 +28703x3.355
5

=400x10 96300

=39903700Pa

=399.0bar

Summary

time
(hours)
0
4
4
4
50

radius
(m)
all
0.15
9.00
50.00
50.00

pressure
(bar)
400.0
396.4
398.8
399.7
399.0

Skin Factor
Assumption of constant permeability around wellbore
Formation damage during drilling and completion and
during production causes alteration of permeability
around wellbore.
Extends up to a few feet from wellbore into reservoir
If reservoir fractured (naturally or by workover)
permeability may be increased
Ei function fails to account for these conditions
Skin zone defined as zone around wellbore with
altered permeability

bottomhole fowing pressure, Pwf

pressure profile if no skin zone was present

Pwf(no skin)

actual pressure profile through skin zone

Pskin

skin zone

Pwf(skin)

permeability, k s
rw

permeability, k
rs

radius, r
Pskin = Pwf(skin) - Pwf(no skin)

Assume skin zone equal to altered zone of uniform

permeability, ks with an outer radius rs
Additional pressure drop across zone Ps can be
modelled by steady state inflow
Assumed that after initial time, flow regime around
wellbore close to steady state

 r
r
q
q rs
q k
s
ln
ln =
( 1)ln s
Ps=
2k s h rw 2kh rw
2kh k s
r w
Pi Pwf

q
q
rs
Ei(y) 2

Ei(y) Ps
1 ln
4kh
4kh
rw
k s

IfatthewellborethelogarithmapproximationcanbesubstitutedfortheEifunction,
then:

Pi Pwf

q
crw2
rs
ln(

) 2
1 ln
4kh
4kt
rw
k s

Askinfactor,s,canthenbedefinedas:

rs
s
1 ln
rw
k s
andthedrawdowndefinedas

Pi Pwf

q crw2
ln(

) 2s
4kh
4kt

Equation shows that positive skin means decrease in

permeability around well
Measured as part of the objectives of well testing
Extent of altered zone unknown
Altered zone around a particular well affects only the
pressure near that well

Semi-Steady State Solution

Once boundaries felt, transience stops

P dP

constant
t dt
where no flow across external boundary,re

Similar to steady state, pressure drop between

wellbore and external radius
wellbore and average pressure
may be calculated.

Average pressure usually known in reservoirs - this is

used to determine pressure drop

Under semi-steady state conditions, pressure profile

averaged over reservoir drainage cell
If several wells in reservoir, cells stabilise drainage
areas based on flow rates

cV(Pi P) qt
whereV=porevolumeoftheradialcell;q=constantproductionrate;t=totalflowing
time,c=isothermalcompressibility.

dV
q
dt
dV qdt
dt

q
dP dP
dP
1 dV
sincec

V dP
dP
q cV
dt
dP
q

dt
cV

which,forthedrainageofaradialcell,canbeexpressedas
dP
q

2
dt
c re h
Substitutionofequation3.29intheradialdiffusivityequation
c P
1 P
r r(r r )= k t
gives
1 P
c q
(r ) =
r r r
k c re2 h

whichis
1 P
q
(r ) = 2
r r r
re hk

(3.29)

Integrationgives
dP
q r2
r

C1
dr
2re2 kh

attheouterboundarythepressuregradientiszero,i.e.
q
andsubstitutionintoequation3.30gives
2kh
dP
q 1 r

dr 2kh r re

(3.30)
dP
0 therefore
dr

C1

(3.31)

Whenintegrated,thisgives

2 r

q
r

lnr 2
2kh
2re r

Pr
Pwf

or

q
r
r2
ln 2
Pr Pwf
2 kh rw 2re

(3.32)

rw2
Theterm 2 isconsiderednegligible,andinthecasewherethepressureattheexternal
2re

radius,reisconsidered(includingtheskinfactor,s,aroundthewell),

q re 1
ln s
Pe Pwf
2kh rw 2

(3.33)

Iftheaveragepressureisused,thenthevolumeweightedaveragepressureofthe
drainagecelliscalculatedaspreviouslyinthesteadystateflowregime,i.e.

2 re
P 2 Prdr
r e rw

whererwandrearethewellboreandexternalradiiasbefore,andPisthepressureineach
radialelement,dratadistancerfromthecentreofthewellbore.Inthiscase,
2

2 q
r
r

P Pwf 2
r ln 2 dr

re 2kh r rw 2re
re

andintegratinggives
r
2
r
r
r 2

r
1r

i) r ln dr =
ln

dr
rw
2 rw r r r 2
r
re

r
2 r
r 2

r
r
= ln
2 rw r 4 r
e

re2 re re2
ln
2 rw 4
3
4 r
r

r
r
re2
2
ii)
2 dr =
8
8re r
r 2re
e

andsubstitutionintoequation3.32withinclusionoftheskinfactorgives

q re 3
ln + s
P Pwf
2kh rw 4

(3.34)

Thepressuredifferences(PrPwf),(PePwf),( PPwf)donotchangewithtime,whereasPr,
Pe,Pwand Pdochange.

Using Initial Pressure, Pi

Ifthepressuredropfrominitialpressureconditionsisrequiredthenequation3.27maybe
writtenas:

q
P Po t o t
cV
qt
P Pi

cV

(3.35)

(3.36)

whereqisthevolumeflowrate,cistheisothermalcompressibility,Vistheoriginal
volumetoisareferencetimeafterwhichflowstarts,tistheflowingtime,Poisthe
pressureatthereferencetimeandPisthepressureattimetaftertheflowstarts. Pisthe
averagereservoirpressureaftertime,t.Subtractingequation3.36fromequation3.34
gives

re 3
q
2kt
PiPwf=2kh(lnrw4+cr 2)
e

(3.37)

Generalised Reservoir Geometry:

Flow Equation under SSS

Key factor: SSS feels boundaries

Finite amount of fluid in reservoir
Equation built for radial geometries, but non-radial
shapes can be accommodated by Dietz shape factor

Usingtheaveragereservoirpressureandassumingnoskinfactor,thepressuredropis
describedbyequation3.34as

q re 3
ln
P Pwf
2kh rw 4

(3.34)

 r 3
Expressingtheterms ln e as
rw 4
2
2

32
1
re 3
1
re
3 1
re
2ln ln ln ln e
2
rw 2 2 rw
2 2 rw

r 2
e
1 rw
= ln
3

2 2
e

2
1 re
= ln
2 2 23
rwe

Theareadrained(foraradialgeometry)isre2thereforethelogarithmtermbecomes

2
4re

3
4rw2 e 2

4A

2
1.781x31.6xrw

whereAistheareadrained, 1.781 andDietzshapefactor,CA(forawellinaradial

drainagearea)=31.6.

Thefinalformofthegeneralisedsemisteadystateinflowequationforanaverage
reservoirpressureis

q 1
4A
ln

P Pwf
2 s
2kh 2 C A rw

(3.38)

Forthepressuredropbetweeninitialreservoirpressureconditionsandsomebottomhole
flowingpressureduringsemisteadystateflow,equation3.37canbeexpressedas
q 1
4A
2kt
( ln

)
PiPwf=
2 kh 2 CA rw2 cA

or
Pwf=Pi

q 1
4A
2kt
( ln

)
2
2 kh 2 CA rw cA

(3.39)

(3.40)

Inaconvenientdimensionlessform,thiscanbeexpressedas

kt r 2
2kh
1
4A
w

(P Pwf ) ln

cr 2 A
q
2 C A rw2

w
or

1
4A
rw2
PD t D ln

2 2 t D
2 CA rw
A

(3.41)

Theterminvolvingthewellboreradiuscanbeaccommodatedbyusingthefollowing
modifieddimensionlesstime
rw2
t DA t D
A
inwhichcase
1
4A
PD t D ln
2 t DA
2 CA rw2

Series of common shape factors with wells located at

particular positions
Values of dimensionless tDA
i) infinite solution with error < 1% for tDA <X
X is value of maximum elapsed time during which
reservoir infinite acting and Ei function can be used
ii) solution with less than 1% error for tDA >X
SSS solution used with error < 1% for elapsed time t
iii) solution exact for tDA >X
SSS solution for exact results for an elapsed time t

Real reservoir:
volume drained by well related to its flow rate
volume correlated to structural map to
determine
shape
shape factor values then used to locate
position of
well near boundaries
not an exact procedure and heterogeneity
can alter
pressure distribution

Application of CTR Solution in Well

Testing
So far, pressure drops in a reservoir have been
considered as a result of a flow rate in a well for a
period of time
Therefore for given values of porosity, permeability,
reservoir geometry and flow regime, the pressure at a
particular distance can be calculated
In reality, only flow rates and pressure can be
measured at the wells, and the most significant
parameter to be verified is the permeability

This is part of well test analysis where the

pressure in a well is measured continuously
over time, the flow regime is identified and
the appropriate flow equation applied to the
data to determine the permeability
It is important to note that this section
considers an initially undisturbed reservoir in
which a well is brought on production.

Pressure decline at well measured through time

It is reasonable to expect the reservoir to go through
a flow regime that starts in transience than changes
to steady state or semi steady state.
In the following example, the reservoir is considered
to be an isolated block, therefore SSS flow regime is
expected after
Initial transient solution used to calculate
permeability and skin factor
SSS to determine reservoir limits

Example5.Awellistestedbyproducingitataconstantflowrateof238stm 3/day(stock
tank) for a period of 100 hours. The reservoir data and flowing bottomhole pressures
recordedduringthetestareasfollows:

Data

porosity,

18%
3
3
formationvolumefactorforoil,Bo 1.2rm /stm
netthicknessofformation,h
6.1m
3
viscosityofreservoiroil,
1x10 Pas
9
1
compressibility,c

2.18x10 Pa
wellboreradius,rw

0.1m
initialreservoirpressure,Pi
241.3bar
3
wellflowrate(constant)

238stm /day

Time(hours)

0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
7.5
10.0
15.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
100.0

Bottomhole
flowing
pressure
(bar)
241.3
201.1
199.8
199.1
198.5
197.8
196.5
195.3
192.8
185.2
180.2
176.7
173.2
169.7
166.2
162.7
159.2

1.Calculatetheeffectivepermeabilityandskinfactorofthewell.

2.MakeanestimateoftheareabeingdrainedbythewellandtheDietzshapefactor.

Solution

The description of the test is such that this is the first time the well has been put on
productionandthereservoirpressurewilldeclineataratedictatedbythesolutionsofthe
diffusivity equation. The pressure decline has been recorded at the wellbore (as in the
table of data) and it is expected that there will be an unsteady state (transient) period
initiallyfollowedbyasemisteadystateorsteadystateflowperiod.Itisthoughttobean
isolatedblockthereforetherewouldbeadepletionofthereservoirpressureundersemi
steadystateconditionsexpected.Theinitialunsteadystateortransientflowperiodcanbe
usedtodeterminethepermeabilityandskinfactorofthewell,andthesubsequentsemi
steadystateflowperiodcanbeusedtodetectthereservoirlimits.SIunitswillbeusedat
3
reservoirconditions,thereforeflowratesareinm /sandtheformationvolumefactorfor
oilisusedtoconvertfromstocktanktoreservoirvolumes.Thepressurerelateditemsare
inPascal.

1. The permeability and skin factor can be determined from the initial transient period
usingthelinesourcesolution:

q
4kt
ln
2s
Pwf Pi
2

4kh crw
or
Pwf mlnt c

(3.19)

Examiningthedata,thefollowingareconstant:

initial pressure, Pi, permeability, k, , porosity, , viscosity, , compressibility, c,

wellboreradius,rw,andskinfactor,s.Bothpermeabilityandskinfactorareunknown(but
theyareknowntobeconstant).Thereforeinequation3.19,thereisalinearrelationship
betweenthebottomholeflowingpressure,Pwfandthelogarithmoftime,lnt,theslopeof
therelationship,m,equalto

q
m

4kh

From this, the unknown value, i.e. the permeability, k, can be calculated. Once the
permeabilityisknown,theequationcanberearrangedtodeterminetheotherunknown,
theskinfactor,as:

4kt
Pi Pwf

2s
ln
2
m
crw

Any coherent set of data points can be used to determine the permeability and skin,
however,itisnotclearwhenthedatarepresentthelinesourcesolution.Thereforeallof
thepressuredataareplottedandalinearfitattachedtothosedatawhichshowthelinear
relationshipbetweenthebottomholeflowingpressure,Pwfandthelogarithmoftime,lnt.

time
(hours)

0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
7.5
10.0
15.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
100.0

Bottomhole
flowing
pressure
(bar)
241.3
201.1
199.8
199.1
198.5
197.8
196.5
195.3
192.8
185.2
180.2
176.7
173.2
169.7
166.2
162.7
159.2

lntime

0.0
0.7
1.1
1.4
1.6
2.0
2.3
2.7
3.4
3.7
3.9
4.1
4.2
4.4
4.5
4.6

Pressure- time data (log to base e)

210

200

slope = 1.98 bar/unit

190

180

170

160

150
0

ln flowing time, t (hours)

The plots of bottomhole flowing pressure show that thetransientperiod(for which the
logarithmapproximationisvalid)lastsforapproximately4hoursandfromtheplot,the
slope, m, canbedetermined tobe 1.98bar/log cycle.Substituting this intothe equation
gives:

q B o
238x1.2x1x10 3
15
2
k

218x10
m
218mD
5
4mh 24x3600x4 x1.98x10 x6.1

(convertingfromstocktankcubicmetres/daytoreservoircubicmetres/secondandfrom
2
bartoPascalproducingapermeabilityintermsofm whichisthenconvertedtomD).

Todeterminetheskinfactor,theslope,m,ofthelineistheoreticallyextrapolatedtoa
convenienttime.Thisisusuallyatimeof1hour.

The bottomhole pressure associated with this time is calculated and this is used to
determineapressuredrop(PiPwf)duringthetime(t1hourt0).

Thisisthenequaltothepressuredropcalculatedfromthelnfunctionplusanexcess
causedbytheskin.Inthiscase,arealpressuremeasurementwasrecordedattime1
hour,butthisisnotnecessarilythesamenumberascalculatedfromtheextrapolation
ofthelinearsectionoftherelationshipsincetherealpressurerecordedattime1hour
may not be valid for use with the Ei function, i.e. although it wasrecorded,itmay
havebeentooearlyfortheEifunctiontoaccuratelyapproximatethereservoirflow
regime.

InthiscaseP1hour=201.2barandtherefore
4kt

Pi P1hour
241.3 201.2
4x218x10 15 x3600

2s
ln
ln

2
3
9
2
m
1.98
1.781x0.18x1x10 x2.18x10 x0.1
crw
2s=20.2513.02=7.23
s=3.6

2.Todeterminetheareadrainedandtheshapefactor,thedatafromthe
semisteadystateflowregimearerequired.

From equation 3.29, there will be a linear relationship between

bottomhole flowing pressure and time. This isrelatedtothearea ofthe
drainedvolumeandtheshapefactor.

Todeterminethegradientofthepressuredecline,thebottomholeflowing
pressureandtimeareplottedusingCartesiancoordinates

Pressure- time data

210

200

190

180

slope = 0.35 bar/hour

170

160

150
0

20

40

60

80

Flowing time, t (hours)

100

120

Fromtheplot,thegradientisdeterminedtobe0.35bar/houror9.72Pa/s.Thisisrelated
tothevolumetriccompressibilityofthereservoir,i.e.

dP
q

dt
cAh
whereqistheflowrate,c isthecompressibility,Aistheareaofthereservoir,h isthe
thicknessandistheporosity.Takingaccountoftheformationvolumefactor,B o,

qBo
A
dP
ch
dt
238x1.2
A

9
24x3600x2.18x10 x6.1x0.18x 9.72
2
A=142076m

Thesemisteadystateinflowequationis

q 1
4A
2kt
( ln

+ s)
Pwf=Pi
2
2 kh 2 CA rw cA

ThelinearextrapolationofthislinetosmallvaluesoftgivesthespecificvalueofPwfof
194.2baratt=0.Inreality,att=0,theflowratehasnotstarted,sothiswillbenamedP0.
Inserting this value in equation 3.39 at t=0, converting bar to Pascal and including the
skinfactorgives:

q 4A
ln 2 lnC A 2s
Pi P0
4kh rw

i.e.

4x142076

(241.3 194.2)x10 1.98x10 ln

2 lnC A 2x3.62
1.781x0.1

17.28+7.2423.79=0.73=lnCA
CA=2.08

FromTable5,thisisclosetotheconfigurationinFigure11.

Figure11WellconfigurationforDietzshapefactorof2.0769

The Constant Terminal Pressure Solution

In the constant terminal rate solution of the diffusivity equation, the

rate is known to be constant at some part of the reservoir and the
pressures are calculated throughout the reservoir.
Conversely, in the constant terminal pressure solution, the pressure is
known to be constant at some point in the reservoir, and the cumulative
flow at any particular radius can be calculated.

The constant terminal pressure solution is not as confusing as the

constant terminal rate solution simply because less is known about it.
Only one constant terminal pressure solution is available, so there is
no decision to be made over which to use as in the case of the
constant terminal rate solutions.

Hurst and Van Everdingen produced the solutions for cases of an

infinite radial system with a constant pressure at the inner
boundary and for constant pressure at the inner boundary and no
flow across the outer boundary.
These can model, for example, a wellbore whose bottomhole
flowing pressure is held constant whilst flow occurs in the
reservoir, or they can model a reservoir surrounded by an
aquifer.
The same geometrical and property conditions apply as for the
constant terminal rate solutions: a radial geometry of constant
thickness with a well in the centre, and with fixed rock and fluid
properties throughout, however, in this case there is a pressure
drop from an initial pressure to some constant value.

In the case of aquifer encroachment, the radius of the

well is the radius of the initial oil water contact.
The constant terminal pressure solution is most widely
used for calculating the water-encroachment (natural
water influx) into the original oil and gas zone due to water
drive in a reservoir.

Hurst and van Everdingen

Solution

As mentioned previously,
the radial diffusivity equation in dimensionless form is:
1 PD PD
(4.1)
r

rD rD D rD t D
where the dimensionless terms are:
dimensionless radius:

rD

r
ro

dimensionless external radius:

reD

re
ro

dimensionless time
:

tD

kt
cro2

dimensionless pressure drop:

PD

Pi P
Pi Pro

where
ro = outer radius of the oil reservoir (i.e. the oil water contact)

PD=0attD=0forallrD
PD=1atrD=1foralltD>0

PD
rD

=0foralltD>0
rD r eD

Since the instantaneous production rate, q

q

2ro hk P

then the cumulative produced water,

W
e
t

We qdt
0

Hurst and Van Everdingen developed solutions for the constant terminal pres
condition of the form:

(4.2)
q D (t D )
2 khP

where
=
qD(tD) = dimensionless influx rate evaluated
at1.0
r and which describes the
D
change in rate from zero to q due to pressure drop
P applied at the outer
reservoir boundaryo rat time t = 0.

The dimensionless cumulative produced water volume, QD(tD)

tD

Q D (t D ) q Ddt D
0

k t

qdt
2khP cro2 0

(4.3)

from which the cumulative produced water is

2
We= 2h cro PQ D (t D )
(4.4)

where We is the cumulative water influx due to pressure drop

P imposed at the
radius ro at the initial time, t=0.
QDtD is the dimensionless cumulative water influx function giving the
dimensionless influx per unit pressure drop,
P imposed at the reservoir/ aquifer
boundary at time t=0.

Equation 4.4 is often expressed as

We=UPQD(tD)
(4.5)

where:U=2fhcro2

(4.6)
f = aquifer constant for radial geometry describing the proportion of the
aquifer in contact with the oil rim as shown in figure 12.

WATER

OIL
ro
re

(encroachmentangle)

fraction,f=

360
360

Figure 12 Illustrationf nomenclature

o
for water influx problems

The solutions, Q
t
D(tD) are prepared in Tables 8 and 9 as functions
D.ofThese
tables are described in Lee and are also available as equations for direct use in
the reservoir is infinite
spreadsheets. The use of the tables depends on whether
or bounded.
(a) Bounded Aquifer (Table 9). Irrespective of the geometry, there is a value
of tD for which the dimensionless water influx reaches a constant value:

1 2
r 1
2 eD
reD=re/ro
Q DMax

(4.7)

If Q D in equation 4.7 is used in equation 4.4, for a full aquifer (f = 1.0), the
result is

re2ro2
2
We=2hcro P(
)=(re2ro2)hcP
(4.8)
2
2ro

This is also equal to the total influx occurring, assuming that

P is
the
instantaneously tran
smitted throughout the aquifer. Therefore, once the plateau
level of QD(tD) has been reached, it means that the minimum value
of t
D at
which this occurs has been sufficiently long for the instantaneousPdrop
to be
felt throughout the aquifer. The plateau
level of QD(tD) is then the maximum
dimensionless water influx resulting from such a pressure drop.

(b) Infinite aquifer (Table 8). There is no maximum value D

of
(tDQ) reached in
this case since the water influx is always governed by transient
nditions.
flow co

Example 6. Water influx: Hurst and Van Everdingens Constant Terminal Pressure
solution
A reservoir is surrounded by an aquifer with an external boundary as shown in figure 13.
external radius, re

radius of the oil

reservoir, ro

4575m

water

1525m
oil

Figure13Planofthereservoir/aquifer

Data

porosity,

23%
netthicknessofformation,h
50m
viscosityofreservoiroil,
0.7x103Pas
compressibility,c

1.7x109Pa1
permeability,k

170mD

oilreservoirradius,ro

1525m
externalradius,re

4575m
instantaneouspressurechange,P 10bar

1)Calculatethewaterinfluxattimesof0.1year,0.5year,1.0
year,1.5years2.0yearsand2.2yearsaftertheinstantaneous
pressuredropattheoilwatercontact.

2)Calculatethewaterinfluxifitisassumedthatthesamepressure
dropistransmittedsimultaneouslythroughtheaquifer.

Solution

TheconstantterminalpressuresolutionsshowninTables8and9areusedtofindthe
dimensionlesscumulativewaterinflux(ataparticulardimensionlessexternalradius)ata
particulardimensionlesstimefromwhichthecumulativewaterinfluxiscalculated.The
firststepistocalculatethedimensionlesstime,thenlookupthetableforthe
correspondingdimensionlesscumulativewaterinflux.

kt
tD

cro2
170x1015 t
tD

0.23x0.7x103 x1.7x109 x15252

tD=2.7x107t

80
0.22
aquiferconstant,f
360

cumulativewaterinflux,
We=2fchro2PQD(tD)

We=2x0.22x0.23x1.7x109x50x15252x10x105xQD(tD)

We=62847.6QD(tD)

dimensionlessexternalradius,
r
4575
reD e
3
ro 1525

time

time

(year)

(s)

0.1

0.1x365x24x3600=
3153600
0.5x365x24x3600=
15768000
1.0x365x24x3600=
31536000
1.5x365x24x3600=
47304000
2.0x365x24x3600=
63072000
2.2x365x24x3600=
69379200

0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.2

t D

Q D
(R eD=3)

(table
9)
7
2.7x10 x3153600=
1.41
0.85
7
2.7x10 x15768000=
3.32
4.26
7
2.7x10 x31536000=
3.87
8.52
7
2.7x10 x47304000=
3.97
12.77
7
2.7x10 x63072000=
4.00
17.03
7
2.7x10 x69379200=
4.00
18.73

W e
(m3)
88615
208654
243220
249505
251390
251390

Fromthetabletheincreaseincumulativewaterinfluxthroughtimecanbeseen.AftertD
of17.03,Q D(tD)becomesconstantat4.00indicatingthatthemaximumwaterinfluxfor
thisreservoirunder10barpressuredropis251390m3.

2)Ifthepressuredropisinstantaneouslytransmittedthroughthereservoir,theexpansion
andthereforeencroachmentofthewateris

We=(re2ro2)fchP

We=x(4575215252)x0.22x0.23x1.7x109x50x10x105

We=251390m3

Thisisthesameascalculatedbytheconstantterminalpressuresolutionbutwithoutthe
variationinwaterinfluxthroughtime.

Noteintheexamplethedecliningrateofwaterinfluxwit htimeandalsothatunlikea
steadystatesystem,thevaluesofinfluxdonotdoublefordoublingoftime.

Ifthepermeabilityoftheaquiferrockisverylow,forinstance,theaquifermayprovide
onlyasmallvolumeofwatertothereservoirduringitsproducinglife,whichmay
essentiallyproduceasadepletiontypereservoir.

Superposition
In the analyses so far, the well flow rate has been instantly altered from
zero to some constant value.
In reality, the well flowrates may vary widely during normal production
operations and of course the wells may be shut in for testing or some other
operational reason.
The reservoir may also have more than a single well draining it and
consideration must be taken of this fact.
There may be some combination of several wells in a reservoir and/or
several flowrates at which each produce. The calculation of reservoir
pressures can still be done using the previous simple analytical techniques
if the solutions for each rate change, for example, are superposed on each
other.
In other words, the total pressure drop at a wellbore can be calculated as
the sum of the effects of several flowrate changes within the well, or it
may be the sum of the effects caused by production from nearby wells.

There is also the possibility of using infinite acting solutions to mimic the
effects of barriers in the reservoir by using imaginary or image wells to
produce a pressure response similar to that caused by the barrier.

Mathematically, all linear differential equations fulfill the following conditions:

(i) if P is a solution, then C x P is also a solution, where C is a constant.

(ii) if both P1 and P2 are solutions, then P1 + P2 is also a solution.

These two properties form the basis for generating the constant terminal rate
and constant terminal pressure cases.
The solutions may be added together to determine the total effect on
pressure, for example, from several applications of the equation.
This is illustrated if a typical problem is considered: that of multiple wells in a
reservoir.

Effects of Multiple Wells

In a reservoir where more than one well is producing, the effect of each
wells pressure perturbation on the reservoir is evaluated independently
(i.e. as though the other wells and their flow rate/ pressure history did not
exist),
then the pressure drop calculated at a particular well at a particular time
is the simple addition of all of the individual effects superimposed one
effect upon the other.
Consider 3 wells, X, Y and Z, which start to produce at the same time from
an infinite acting reservoir (figure 14).

Superposition shows that:

(Pi-Pwf)Total at Well Y

= (Pi -P)Due to well X + (Pi-P)Due to well Y

+ (Pi-P)Due to well Z
Assuming unsteady state flow conditions, the line source
solution can be used to determine the pressure in well Y.
It is assumed here that the logarithm function can be used for
well Y itself and that there will be a skin around the well.
The effects of wells X and Z can be described by the Ei
function.
There is no skin factor associated with the calculation of
pressure drop caused by these wells, since the pressure drop
of interest is at well Y (i.e. even if wells X and Z have non-zero
skin factors, their skin factors affect the pressure drop only
around wells X and Z).

The total pressure drop is then:

(Pi Pwf ) total at well Y

q Y crwY
ln
2S Y

4kh
4kt

q X crXY

Ei

4kh 4kt
2

q Z crZY

Ei

4kh 4kt

Where
qY is the flowrate from well Y
qX is the flowrate from well X
qZ is the flowrate from well Z
rwY is the radius of well Y
rXY is the distance of well Y from the X well
rZY is the distance of well Z from the X well
the rest of the symbols have their usual meaning

This technique can be used to examine the effects of any number of

wells in an infinite acting reservoir.
This could be to predict possible flowing well pressures amongst a
group of wells, or to deliberately use the interaction between wells to
check reservoir continuity.
These interference tests and other extended well tests are designed
to characterise the reservoir areally rather than to determine only the
permeability and skin factor around individual wells.

Example7.Twowells,well1andwell2,aredrilledinanundevelopedreservoir.
Well1iscompletedandbroughtonproductionat500stm3/dayandproducesfor40days
atwhichtimeWell2iscompletedandbroughtonproductionat150stm3/day.
Usingthedataprovided,calculatethepressureinWell2afterithasproducedfor10days
(andassumingWell1continuestoproduceatitsflowrate).
Therefore,Well1producesfor50dayswhenitspressureinfluenceiscalculated;Well2
producesfor10dayswhenitspressureinfluenceiscalculated.

Thewellsare400mapartandthenearestboundaryis4000mfromeachwell.

Data

porosity,,
21%
formationvolumefactorforoil,Bo
1.4rm3/stm3
netthicknessofformation,h,
36m
viscosityofreservoiroil,
0.7x103Pas
compressibility,c
8.7x109Pa1
permeability,k
80mD
wellboreradius,rw(bothwells)
0.15m
initialreservoirpressure,Pi
180.0bar
Well1flowrate(constant)
500stm3/day
Well2flowrate(constant)
150stm3/day
skinfactoraroundbothwells
0

Solution

ThelinesourcesolutionisusedtodeterminethebottomholeflowingpressureatWell2
after10daysprod uction,accountingfortheeffectof50daysproductionfromWell1.
Checksaremadetoensurethat:

i)therehasbeenadequatetimesincethestartofproductiontoallowthelinesource
solutiontobeaccurate
ii)thereservoirisinfiniteacting.

ACheckEiapplicability

linesourcenotaccurateuntil
100 cr 2
w
t
k
100x0.21x0
.7x10 -3x8.7x10 9 x0.15 2
t

80x10 -15
t>36s
timeis50days,thereforelinesourceisapplicable.

BCheckreservoirisinfiniteacting

cre2
thereservoirisinfiniteactingifthetime, t
4k

0.21x0.7x10 3 x8.7x10 9 x40002

i.e. t

-15
4x80x10

t<63945000
t<740days

thereforelinesourcesolutionisapplicable.

ThebottomholeflowingpressureatWell2isthesumofthepressuredropscausedbyits
productionandbythepressuredropgeneratedbytheproductionofWell1.

PwfatWell2=PiPwell2flowingfor10days Pwell1flowingfor40+10days400maway

A)At10days,contributiontopressuredropfromproductionfromWell2

checklnapproximationtoEifunction

thelnapproximationi svalidifthetime,

2
25cr

k
2
25x0.21x0.7x10 x8.7x10 x0.15

t
-15
80x10
3

t>9s

thereforelnapproximationisvalid.

qB o crw2

Pwf Pi
ln
4kh 4kt
qB o crw2

Pi - Pwf
ln

4 kh 4kt

qB o
150x0.7x10 3 x1.4

=47011
15

4 kh
24x3600x4 x80x10 x36

crw2 1.781x0.21x0.7x10 3 x8.7x10 9 x0.15 2

-15
4kt
4x80x10 x10x24x3600

PiP wf=47011xln(1 85x10 9)

PiP wf=47011x 15.5

PiP wf=728671Pa

=185x10 9

B)At10daysproductionfromwell2,well1hasbeenproducingfor50daysandits
contributiontopressuredropatWell2iscalculatedasfollows.

checklnapproximationtoEifunction

thelnapproximationisvalidifthetime, t

25cr 2

25x0.21x0.7x10 x8.7x10 x400

80x10 -15

t>63945000s
t>740days

thereforelnapproximationisnotvalidandtheEifunctionisused.

qB o cr12-2

Pi - Pwf at Well2 caused by Well1
Ei
4kh
4kt

qB o
500x0.7x10 3 x1.4

=156704
15

4 kh
24x3600x4 x80x10 x36

2
cr1-2 0.21x0.7x10 3 x8.7x10 9 x 400 2

=0.148
4kt
4x80x10-15 x50x24x3600

Ei(0.148)=1.476

PiPwfatWell2causedbyWell1 =156704x1.476
PiPwfatWell2causedbyWell1 =231295Pa

PwfWell2=180.07.32.3
PwfWell2=170.4bar

Principle of Superposition and

Approximation of Variable - Rate Pressure
Histories
The previous section illustrated the effect of the production from several
wells in a reservoir on the bottomhole flowing pressure of a particular well.
Of equal interest is the effect of several rate changes on the bottomhole
pressure within a particular well.
This is a more realistic situation compared to those illustrated previously
where a well is simply brought on production at a constant flowrate for a
specific period of time.
For instance, a newly completed well may have several rate changes during
initial cleanup after completion, then during production testing then finally
during production as rates are altered to match reservoir management
requirements (for example limiting the producing gas oil ratio during
production).
A simple pressure and flowrate plot versus time would resemble figure 15

The well has been brought onto production at an initial flowrate, q1.
The bottomhole flowing pressure has dropped through time (as
described by the appropriate boundary conditions and the flow
regime) until at time t1, the flowrate has been increased to q2 and this
change from q1 to q2 has altered the bottomhole flowing pressure
(again as described by the boundary conditions and the flow regime).
The total (i.e. the real bottomhole flowing pressure) is calculated by
summing the pressure drops caused by the flowrate q1 bringing the
well on production, plus the pressure drop created by the flowrate
change q2 - q1 for any time after t1.
During the first period (q1) the pressure drop at a time, t, is described
by

P(t)=PiPwf=

q1
PD(t)
2kh

where PD(t) is the dimensionless pressure drop at the well for the
applicable boundary condition.

For times greater than t1, the pressure drop is described by

q1
(q2q1)
P(t)=
PD(t)+

PD(tt1)
2kh
2kh

(5.3)

In this case, the pressure drop is that caused by the rate q1 over the duration
t, plus the pressure drop caused by the flowrate change q2 - q1 over the
duration t - t1.
In fact, the pressure perturbation caused by q1 still exists in the reservoir and
is still causing an effect at the wellbore.
On top of that, the next perturbation caused by flowrate change q2 - q1 is
added or superposed to give the total pressure drop (at the wellbore in this
case).

In mathematical terms:

0t 1t:

t>t1

q1
P(t)=
PD(t)
2kh

(5.4)

q1
(q2q1)
P(t)=
PD(t)+

PD(tt1)
2kh
2kh

(5.5)

In the 2nd equation, the first term is P from flow at q1 :

2nd term is the incremental term P caused by increasing
rate by an increment (q2-q1).
These expressions are valid regardless of whether q2 is
larger or smaller than q1 so that even if the well is shut in,
the effects of the previous flowrate history are still valid.

The dimensionless pressure drop function depends as

mentioned on the flow regime and boundaries. If unsteady
state is assumed and the line source solution applied, then

PiPwf
crw2
1
PD=
= Ei(
)
2
4kt
q/2kh

(5.6)

and the equation for time, t less than or equal

to t be
1 would
as expected

q 1
cr w2
P(t)=
Ei(
).
4kt
4kh

(5.7)

For times greater

than t1 the additional pressure drop is
added to give

P(t)=

q 1
cr w2
(q2q1)
cr w2
Ei(
)
Ei(
)
4kt
4k(tt1)
4kh
4kh

(5.8)

This approach can be extended to many flowrate changes as illustrated in

figure 16.

This leads to a general equation

q1
(q q 1 )
(q q 2 )
PD (t) 2
PD (t t 1 ) 3
PD (t t 2 ) ...
2 kh
2kh
2kh
(q qn 1 )
n
PD (t t n 1 )

2 kh

P(t)

or

q 1
q i q i 1
P(t)
P
(t)

P
(t

t
)
q

D
i 1
2 kh D

i 2
1

This is the general form of the principle of superposition for

multi rate history wells. For the specific case where the well
is shut in and the pressure builds up, an additional term is
added to reflect this.

(5.9)

(5.10)

Assuming that the well was shut in during the nth flowrate
t (i.e.
period, the pressure builds during the shut intime
t starts from the instant the well is shut in) back up
towards the initial reservoir pressure according to
n
q n1
q1
q i q i1
Pi Pws
PD (t n1 t i 1 + t)
PD (t)
P (t)
2 kh D
q
2

kh

12
1

( 5.11) where
P

is the shut in bottomhole pressure

ws
t
is the total producing time before
shut in
n-1
t is the closed in time from the instant of shut in.

Effects of Rate Changes

Illustration of problem as follows:
Well brought onto production at q1 until time t1 then flowrate increased
to q2
q2 continues till t2, flowrate increased to q3.
Assume reservoir in unsteady state and line source applicable
Seeking Pwf, skin may be present
Each flowrate change produces a pressure perturbation that moves into
formation
Figure illustrates:

The pressure drop produced by bringing the well onto production is

calculated by the logarithmic approximation of the Ei function (it is
assumed that the checks have been made to the applicability of the Ei
function and its logarithmic approximation).

P1 Pi Pwf 1

q1 crw2

2s
ln
4kh 4kt

The next pressure drop is that produced by the flowrate

change q2 - q1 at time, t1.
It is still the bottomhole flowing pressure that is to be
determined, therefore any skin zone will still exist and still
need to be accounted for. The second pressure drop is:

P2 Pi Pwf 2

(q 2 q1 ) crw2

ln
2s
4kh 4k(t t1 )

And finally the third pressure drop is:

(q3 q 2 ) crw2
P3 Pi Pwf 3
ln
2s
4kh 4k(t t 2 )

The total pressure drop at the wellbore caused

by all of the flowrate changes is

(Pi - Pwf )= P1 + P2 + P3

Example 8. A well is completed in an undeveloped reservoir described by the data

below.Thewellflowsfor6daysat60stm3/dayandisthenshutinforaday.Calculate
thepressureinanobservationwell100mfromtheflowingwell.

Data

porosity,,
19%
formationvolumefactorforoil,Bo
1.3rm3/stm3
netthicknessofformation,h,
23m
viscosityofreservoiroil,
0.4x103Pas
compressibility,c
3x109Pa1
permeability,k
50mD
wellboreradius,rw(bothwells)
0.15m
externalradius,re
6000m
initialreservoirpressure,Pi
180.0bar
flowrate(constant)
60stm3/day
skinfactoraroundwell
0

Theobservationwellis100mfromtheflowingwell.

Solution

Thelinesourcesolutionisusedtodeterminethepressureintheobservation
wellafter6daysproductionfromtheflowingwellthen1dayshutinatthe
flowingwell.Checksaremadetoensurethat:

i)therehasbeenadequatetimesincethestartofproductiontoallowtheline
sourcesolutiontobeaccurate
ii)thereservoirisinfiniteacting.

ACheckEiapplicability

linesourcenotaccurateuntil
100crw2
t
k

100x0.19x0.4x10 3 x3x109 x0.152

50x1015

t>10.3s
timeis6days,thereforelinesourceisapplicable.

BCheckreservoirisinfiniteacting

thereservoirisinfiniteactingifthetime,

cre2
t
4k
i.e.

0.19x0.4x10 3 x3x109 x6000 2

t
4x50x1015
t<41040000s
t<475days

thereforelinesourcesolutionisapplicable.

Thepressuredropattheobservationwellisdescribedby

Pi Pobs well

cr 2
B o
cr 2

(q 2 q1 )Ei
q1Ei
4kh
4kt

4k(t t1 )

Checkingforthevalidityofthelnapproximation,

thelnapproximationisvalidifthetime,

25cr

25x0.19x0.4x10 3 x3x109 x1002

t
15
50x10
t>1140000s
t>13days

thereforelnapproximationisnotvalid.

Bo
0.4x10 3 x1.3

=35982857

4kh
4 x50x10 15 x23

2
0.19x0.4x10 3 x3x10 9 x100 2
cr12

=0.019
4kt
4x50x1015 x7x24x3600

2
0.19x0.4x10 3 x3x10 9 x1002
cr12

=0.132
4k(t t1 ) 4x50x1015 x(7 6)x24x3600

Ei(0.019)=3.405
Ei(0.132)=1.576

0 60
60

Pi Pobswell 35982857
x 3.405
x 1.576
24x3600

24x3600

Pi Pobswell 359828572.36x10 3 1.09x10 3

PiPobswell=45698Pa=0.5bar
Pobswell=180.00.5=179.5bar

Simulating Boundary Effects

One of the intriguing possibilities of the application of the principle of
superposition to reservoir flow is in simulating reservoir boundaries.
It is clear that when a well in a reservoir starts production, there will be a period
where the flow regime is unsteady while the reservoir fluid reacts to the pressure
perturbation as if the volume of the reservoir was infinite (i.e. an infinite acting
reservoir).
Once the boundaries are detected, there is a definite limit to the volume of fluid
available and the pressure response changes to match that of, for example, semi
steady state or steady state flow. This assumes that the pressure perturbation
reaches the areal boundary at the same time, i.e. if the well was in the centre of
a circular reservoir, the pressure perturbation would reach the external radius at
all points around the circumference at the same time (assuming homogeneous
conditions).

If the well was not at the centre then some parts of the boundary would be
detected before all of the boundary was detected. This means that some of the
reservoir fluid is still in unsteady flow whilst other parts are changing to a
different flow regime.
This would appear to render the use of the line source solution invalid, however,
the effect of the nearest boundary in an otherwise infinite acting reservoir has
the same effect as the interaction of the pressure perturbations of two wells next
to each other in an infinite acting reservoir.
So if an imaginary well is placed at a distance from the real well equal to twice
the distance to the boundary, and the flowrate histories are identical, then the
principle of superposition can be used to couple the effect of the imaginary well
to the real well in order to calculate the real wells bottomhole flowing pressure.
Figure 18 illustrates the problem and the effect of superposition. Figure 19
shows a simplification of the model.

This shows a plane-fault boundary in an otherwise infinite acting reservoir, as in

the top figure . To determine the pressure response in the well, the line source
solution can be used until the pressure perturbation hits the fault. Thereafter
there are no solutions for this complex geometry. However, the reservoir can be
modelled with an infinite acting solution if a combination of wells in an infiniteacting system that limit the drainage or flow around the boundary is found.
The bottom of figure 18 indicates 1 image well with the same production rate as
the actual well is positioned such that the distance between it and the actual well
is twice the distance to the fault of the actual well. No flow occurs across the
plane midway between the two wells in the infinite-acting system, and the flow
configuration in the drainage area of each well is the same as the flow
configuration for the actual well.
Pressure communication crosses the drainage boundary, but there is no fluid
movement across it and the problem of the flow regime has been resolved: the
real well can be thought of as reacting to the flowrate in it and to the pressure
drop produced by the imaginary well on the opposite side of the fault.

The pressure drop is therefore:

c(2L) 2
q
crw2
q
Pi Pwf
ln(
) 2s
Ei

4kh
4kt
4kh
4kt

where the symbols have their usual meaning, and L is the distance from the real
well to the fault. The skin factor is used in the actual well, but not in the other
(image) well since it is the influence of this image well at a distance 2L from it
that is of interest.

Example 9. A well in a reservoir is produced at 120 stm /day for 50 days. It is 300m
fromafault.Usingthedatagiven,calculatethebottomholeflowingpressureinthewell
anddeterminetheeffectofthefaultonthebottomholeflowingpressure.

Data

porosity,,

19%
3
3
formationvolumefactorforoil,Bo 1.4rm /stm
netthicknessofformation,h,
20m
3
viscosityofreservoiroil,
1x10 Pas
9
1
compressibility,c

9x10 Pa
permeability,k

120mD
wellboreradius,rw

0.15m
externalradius,re

4000m
initialreservoirpressure,Pi
300.0bar
3
flowrate(constant)

120stm /day
flowrateperiod,t

50days
distancetofault,L

300m
skinfactoraroundwell

Solution

Thelinesourcesolutionwillbeusedtoassesstheeffectsoftherateandtheboundaryon
the bottomholeflowingpressure.Usinganimagewell600mfromtherealwell(i.e.2x
distancetothefault)withidenticalpressureandratehistoryastherealwell,theeffectof
the boundaryon the infiniteactingreservoircanbeovercome.Thebottomholeflowing
pressureintherealwellwillbethepressuredropcausedbytheproductionfromthereal
wellplusapressuredropfromtheimagewell600maway.

Thelinesourcesolutionwillbeused.Checksaremadetoensurethat:

i) there has been adequate time since the start of production to allow the line source
solutiontobeaccurate
ii)thereservoirisinfiniteacting.

ACheckEiapplicability

linesourcenotaccurateuntil
100crw2
t
k

3
9
2
100x0.19x1x10 x9x10 x0.15
t
120x1015

t>32s
timeis50days,thereforelinesourceisapplicable.

BCheckreservoirisinfiniteacting

thereservoirisinfiniteactingifthetime, t

cre2
4k

0.19x1x10 3 x9x10 9 x4000 2

t
4x120x10 15
t<57000000s
t<660days

thereforelinesourcesolutionisapplicable.

Checkingforthevalidityofthelnapproximation,fortherealwell

25cr 2
thelnapproximationisvalidifthetime,

25x0.19x1x10 3 x9x10 9 x0.15 2

t
120x10 15

t>8s

thereforelnapproximationisvalid.
Checkingforthevalidityofthelnapproximation,fortheimagewell

thelnapproximationisvalidifthetime,

25c(2L) 2
k

25x0.19x1x10 3 x9x10 9 x600 2

t
120x10 15
t>128250000s
t>1484days

thereforelnapproximationisnotvalid.

For this case, then, the ln approximation will predict the bottomhole flowing pressure
aroundtherealwell,buttheeffectoftheimagewell600mawaywillneedtobepredicted
bytheEifunction.

Pi Pwf

2
2

c(2L)
qB o
crw
qBo

ln
Ei
4kh 4kt
4kh
4kt

qBo
120x1x10 3 x1.4

4kh
24x3600x4x120x10 15 x20

= -64473

cr

4kt

1.781x0.19x1x10 3 x9x10 9 x0.15 2

c(2L) 2

0.19x1x10 3 x9x10 9 x600 2

2
w

4kt

4x120x10 15 x50x24x3600

15

4x120x10 x50x24x3600

= 33.1x10-9

= 0.297

Ei(0.297)=0.914
9

Pi Pwf 64473xln(33.1x10 ) 64473x 0.914

PiPwf=1110466+58928=1169394Pa=11.7bar
Pwf=300.011.7=288.3bar

Thefault300mawaypulledthebottomholeflowingpressuredownbyanextra58928Pa
or0.6bar.

There are other examples of the use of image wells to mimic the effect of
boundaries on flow. The larger networks require computer solution to relieve the
tedium. To complicate the simple fault boundary described earlier, consider the
effect of a well near the corner of a rectangular boundary. In this case, there are
more image wells required to balance the flow from the real well. Figure 20
shows the boundary and the image wells.

Four pressure drop terms are required to determine the pressure at the actual
well. The total pressure drop then is the sum of the pressure drops caused by all
of the wells at the actual well.

PiPwf=(P)rw+(P)2L1+(P)2L2+(P)r3

(PiPwf)Totalattheactualwell =(PiP)attheactualwellboreradius,rw

+(PiP)Duetoimagewell1atdistance2L1
+(PiP)Duetoimagewell2atdistance2L2

+(PiP)Duetoimagewell3atdistanceR3

The number and position of image wells can become complex.

In the apparently simple geometry of an actual well surrounded by two

equidistant barriers, such as illustrated in figure 21, the flow can be balanced as
before by defining image well, i1 on the right.
On the left side, the barrier is balanced by image wells i2 and i3 (because seen
from i2, there is a barrier with 2 wells on the other side - a real well and an
image well). Now there is an imbalance in production across the right barrier, so
image wells i4 and i5 are added.
This unbalances the left barrier and image wells i6 and i7 are added. This should
continue to infinity, however, since the line source solution is known to have
little influence above a certain distance from the actual well, the number of
image wells used can be fixed with no error in the approximation.

Even more complex patterns can be devised. Mathews, Brons and Hazebroek
(Matthews, CS, Brons, F and Hazebroek, P, A Method for the Determination of
Average Pressure in a Bounded reservoir. Trans. AIME.201) studied the pressure
behaviour of wells completely surrounded by boundaries in rectangular shaped
reservoirs.
Figure 22 shows the network of wells set up to mimic the effect of the
boundaries.

Summary
The basic partial differential equation expressing the nature of fluid flow in a
porous rock has been illustrated in the context of petroleum reservoirs.
Only oil and water have been used as the simplifications for solving the diffusivity
equation have required the compressibility of the fluid to be small and constant.
This is the reason that the compressibility of the fluid in the examples has not
changed with pressure as would be expected. So, for instance, the same value of
compressibility is used for the fluid at the wellbore which may be under a lower
pressure than the same fluid at, for example, the external radius of the reservoir.
In gasses, the same diffusion process occurs, but the pressure dependence of
the gas is accommodated by various mathematical devices which again lead to
simple working solutions.

The assumptions made concerning the geological structure and the petrophysical
properties of the rock may appear radical: to assume a reservoir is circular,
horizontal and has identical permeability in all directions is a great simplification
of the problem. Yet these simple analytical solutions allow an appreciation of the
role of the fluids and the rock in a producing reservoir.
For more realistic treatments of real reservoirs, approximations to the diffusivity
equation are made from which simple algebraic relationships can be formed. This
process is encapsulated in reservoir simulation where the reservoir (with its
properties) is subdivided into small blocks within which the flow equations have
been approximated by simple relationships.
These can then be solved by a process of iteration to achieve an acceptable
result. The great potential of this process is the ability to represent the shape of
the reservoir and the changing properties, vertically and horizontally, throughout
the reservoir.
Figure 23 summarises the route taken through the analytical solutions for radial
flow regimes examined in this chapter. The number of solutions is
mathematically infinite; only a few are suitable for real reservoir problems.

PD versus tD - infinite radial

system, constant rate at inner
boundary

PD versus tD finite radial

system with
closed
exterior
boundary,
constant rate
at inner
boundary

PD versus tD finite radial

system with
closed
exterior
boundary,
constant rate
at inner
boundary

Values of Exponential
Integral, -Ei(-x)

Dietz shape factors for single well

drainage areas