Logic and Computer Design Fundamentals

Boolean Algebra
and Logic Gates
Charles Kime & Thomas Kaminski
2008 Pearson Education, Inc.
(Edited by Dr. Muhamed Mudawar for COE 202 & EE 200 at KFUPM)

Binary Logic and Gates

Binary variables take on one of two values.
Logical operators operate on binary values and
binary variables.
Basic logical operators are the logic functions
AND, OR and NOT.
Logic gates implement logic functions.
Boolean Algebra: a useful mathematical system
for specifying and transforming logic functions.
We study Boolean algebra as a foundation for
designing and analyzing digital systems!

Binary Variables
Recall that the two binary values have
different names:

True/False
On/Off
Yes/No
1/0

We use 1 and 0 to denote the two values.

Variable identifier examples:
A, B, y, z, or X1 for now
RESET, START_IT, or ADD1 later

Logical Operations
The three basic logical operations are:
AND
OR
NOT

AND is denoted by a dot ().

OR is denoted by a plus (+).
NOT is denoted by an overbar ( ), a
single quote mark (') after, or (~) before
the variable.

Notation Examples
Examples:
Y A B is read Y is equal to A AND B.
z x y is read z is equal to x OR y.
X A is read X is equal to NOT A.

Note: The statement:

1 + 1 = 2 (read one plus one equals two)

is not the same as

1 + 1 = 1 (read 1 or 1 equals 1).

Operator Definitions
Operations are defined on the values
"0" and "1" for each operator:
AND

00=0
01=0
10=0
11=1

OR

NOT

0+0=0
0+1=1
1+0=1
1+1=1

01
10

Truth Tables
Tabular listing of the values of a function for all
possible combinations of values on its arguments
Example: Truth tables for the basic logic operations:

X
0
0
1
1

AND
Y Z = XY
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1

X
0
0
1
1

Y
0
1
0
1

OR
Z = X+Y
0
1
1
1

NOT
X
0
1

Z X
1
0

Truth Tables Contd

Used to evaluate any logic function
Consider F(X, Y, Z) = X Y + Y Z
X

XY

YZ

F=XY+YZ

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1

1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0

0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0

0
1
0
0
0
1
1
1

Logic Function Implementation

Using Switches

Switches in parallel => OR

Inputs:
logic 1 is switch closed
logic 0 is switch open

Outputs:

Switches in series => AND

logic 1 is light on
logic 0 is light off.

NOT input:

Normally-closed switch => NOT

C
logic 1 is switch open
logic 0 is switch closed

Logic Function Implementation contd

Example: Logic Using Switches
B

A
D

Light is on (L = 1) for
A (B C + D) = A B C + A D
L(A, B, C, D) =
and off (L = 0), otherwise.
Useful model for relay and CMOS gate circuits,
the foundation of current digital logic circuits

Logic Gates
In the earliest computers, switches were opened
and closed by magnetic fields produced by
energizing coils in relays. The switches in turn
opened and closed the current paths.
Later, vacuum tubes that open and close current
paths electronically replaced relays.
Today, transistors are used as electronic
switches that open and close current paths.

Logic Gate Symbols and Behavior

Logic gates have special symbols:
X

Z= X Y

Z= X+ Y

X
NOT gate or
inverter

OR gate

AND gate

And waveform behavior in time as follows:

X

X Y

(OR)

X+ Y

(NOT)

(AND)

Z= X

Logic Diagrams and Expressions

Truth Table

Logic Equation

XYZ

F X Y Z

000

001

010

011

100

101

110

111

F X Y Z
Logic Diagram
X

Boolean equations, truth tables and logic diagrams describe

the same function!
Truth tables are unique, but expressions and logic diagrams
are not. This gives flexibility in implementing functions.

Gate Delay
In actual physical gates, if an input changes that
causes the output to change, the output change
does not occur instantaneously.
The delay between an input change and the
output change is the gate delay denoted by tG:
1
Input
0
1
Output
0
0

tG

tG
0.5

tG = 0.3 ns
1.5

Time (ns)

Boolean Algebra

1.
3.
5.
7.
9.

Invented by George Boole in 1854

An algebraic structure defined by a set B = {0, 1}, together with two
binary operators (+ and ) and a unary operator ( )
X+0= X
X+1 =1
X+X =X
X+X =1

X=X

10. X + Y = Y + X
12. (X + Y) + Z = X + (Y + Z)
14. X(Y + Z) = XY + XZ
16. X + Y = X . Y

2.
4.
6.
8.

X .1 =X

Identity element

X .0 =0
X .X = X

Idempotence

X .X = 0

Complement
Involution

11. XY = YX
Commutative
Associative
13. (XY) Z = X(YZ)
15. X + YZ = (X + Y) (X + Z) Distributive
DeMorgans
17. X . Y = X + Y

Some Properties of Boolean Algebra

Boolean Algebra is defined in general by a set B that can
have more than two values
A two-valued Boolean algebra is also know as Switching
Algebra. The Boolean set B is restricted to 0 and 1.
Switching circuits can be represented by this algebra.
The dual of an algebraic expression is obtained by
interchanging + and and interchanging 0s and 1s.
The identities appear in dual pairs. When there is only
one identity on a line the identity is self-dual, i. e., the
dual expression = the original expression.
Sometimes, the dot symbol (AND operator) is not

written when the meaning is clear

Dual of a Boolean Expression

Example: F = (A + C) B + 0
dual F = (A C + B) 1 = A C + B
Example: G = X Y + (W + Z)
dual G = (X+Y) (W Z) = (X+Y) (W+Z)
Example: H = A B + A C + B C
dual H = (A+B) (A+C) (B+C)
Unless it happens to be self-dual, the dual of an
expression does not equal the expression itself
Are any of these functions self-dual? H is self-dual
(A+B)(A+C)(B+C)=(A+BC)(B+C)=AB+AC+BC

Boolean Operator Precedence

The order of evaluation is:
1. Parentheses
2. NOT
3. AND
4. OR
Consequence: Parentheses appear
around OR expressions
Example: F = A(B + C)(C + D)

Boolean Algebraic Proof Example 1

A+ A B = A
Proof Steps
A+ A B
= A 1 + A B
= A ( 1 + B)
= A 1
=A

(Absorption Theorem)
Justification
Identity element: A 1 = A
Distributive
1+B=1
Identity element

Our primary reason for doing proofs is to learn:

Careful and efficient use of the identities and theorems of
Boolean algebra, and
How to choose the appropriate identity or theorem to apply
to make forward progress, irrespective of the application.

Boolean Algebraic Proof Example 2

AB + AC + BC = AB + AC (Consensus Theorem)
Proof Steps
Justification
= AB + AC + BC
= AB + AC + 1 BC
Identity element
= AB + AC + (A + A) BC
Complement
= AB + AC + ABC + ABC
Distributive
= AB + ABC + AC + ACB
Commutative
= AB 1 + ABC + AC 1 + ACB Identity element
= AB (1+C) + AC (1 + B)
Distributive
= AB . 1 + AC . 1
1+X = 1
= AB + AC
Identity element

Useful Theorems
Minimization
XY+XY=Y

Minimization (dual)
(X+Y)(X+Y) = Y

Absorption
X+XY=X

Absorption (dual)
X (X + Y) = X

Simplification
X+XY=X+Y

Simplification (dual)
X (X + Y) = X Y

DeMorgans
X+Y= X Y

DeMorgans (dual)
X Y=X+Y

Truth Table to Verify DeMorgans

X+Y=X Y

XY=X +Y

X Y XY X+Y X Y X+Y X Y XY X+Y

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

0
0
0
1

0
1
1
1

1
1
0
0

1
0
1
0

1
0
0
0

1
0
0
0

1
1
1
0

Generalized DeMorgans Theorem:

X1 + X2 + + Xn = X1 X2 Xn
X1 X2 Xn = X1 + X2 + + Xn

1
1
1
0

Complementing Functions
Use DeMorgan's Theorem:
1. Interchange AND and OR operators
2. Complement each constant and literal

Example: Complement F = xy z x y z

F = (x + y + z)(x + y + z)
Example: Complement G = (a + bc)d + e

G = (a (b + c) + d) e

Expression Simplification
An application of Boolean algebra
Simplify to contain the smallest number of
literals (variables that may or may not be
complemented)

A B ACD A BD AC D A BCD
= AB + ABCD + A C D + A C D + A B D
= AB + AB(CD) + A C (D + D) + A B D
= AB + A C + A B D = B(A + AD) +AC
= B (A + D) + A C (has only 5 literals)

Next Canonical Forms

Minterms and Maxterms
Sum-of-Minterm (SOM) Canonical Form
Product-of-Maxterm (POM) Canonical Form
Representation of Complements of Functions
Conversions between Representations

Minterms
Minterms are AND terms with every variable
present in either true or complemented form.
Given that each binary variable may appear
normal (e.g., x) or complemented (e.g., x), there
are 2n minterms for n variables.
Example: Two variables (X and Y) produce
2 x 2 = 4 combinations:

XY(both normal)
X Y(X normal, Y complemented)
XY (X complemented, Y normal)
X Y(both complemented)

Thus there are four minterms of two variables.

Maxterms
Maxterms are OR terms with every variable in
true or complemented form.
Given that each binary variable may appear
normal (e.g., x) or complemented (e.g., x), there
are 2n maxterms for n variables.
Example: Two variables (X and Y) produce
2 x 2 = 4 combinations:
X Y (both normal)
X Y (x normal, y complemented)
X Y (x complemented, y normal)
X Y (both complemented)

Minterms & Maxterms for 2 variables

Two variable minterms and maxterms.
x y
0 0

Index
0

Minterm
m0 = x y

Maxterm
M0 = x + y

m1 = x y

M1 = x + y

m2 = x y

M2 = x + y

m3 = x y

M3 = x + y

The minterm mi should evaluate to 1 for each

combination of x and y.
The maxterm is the complement of the minterm

Minterms & Maxterms for 3 variables

x
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

y
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

z
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

Index
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Minterm
m0 = x y z
m1 = x y z
m2 = x y z
m3 = x y z
m4 = x y z
m5 = x y z
m6 = x y z
m7 = x y z

Maxterm
M0 = x + y + z
M1 = x + y + z
M2 = x + y + z
M3 = x + y + z
M4 = x + y + z
M5 = x + y + z
M6 = x + y + z
M7 = x + y + z

Maxterm Mi is the complement of minterm mi

Mi = mi and mi = Mi

Purpose of the Index

Minterms and Maxterms are designated with an index
The index number corresponds to a binary pattern
The index for the minterm or maxterm, expressed as a
binary number, is used to determine whether the variable
is shown in the true or complemented form
For Minterms:
1 means the variable is Not Complemented and
0 means the variable is Complemented.

For Maxterms:
0 means the variable is Not Complemented and
1 means the variable is Complemented.

Standard Order
All variables should be present in a minterm or
maxterm and should be listed in the same order
(usually alphabetically)
Example: For variables a, b, c:
Maxterms (a + b + c), (a + b + c) are in standard order
However, (b + a + c) is NOT in standard order
(a + c) does NOT contain all variables
Minterms (a b c) and (a b c) are in standard order
However, (b a c) is not in standard order
(a c) does not contain all variables

Sum-Of-Minterm (SOM)
Sum-Of-Minterm (SOM) canonical form:
Sum of minterms of entries that evaluate to 1
x

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1

Minterm
m1 = x y z

Focus on the
1 entries

m6 = x y z
m7 = x y z

F = m1 + m6 + m7 = (1, 6, 7) = x y z + x y z + x y z

Sum-Of-Minterm Examples
F(a, b, c, d) = (2, 3, 6, 10, 11)
F(a, b, c, d) = m2 + m3 + m6 + m10 + m11
abcd+abcd+abcd+abcd+abcd
G(a, b, c, d) = (0, 1, 12, 15)
G(a, b, c, d) = m0 + m1 + m12 + m15
abcd+abcd+abcd+abcd

Product-Of-Maxterm (POM)
Product-Of-Maxterm (POM) canonical form:
Product of maxterms of entries that evaluate to 0

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

Maxterm
M2 = (x + y + z)
M4 = (x + y + z)

Focus on the
0 entries

M6 = (x + y + z)

F = M2M4M6 = (2, 4, 6) = (x+y+z) (x+y+z) (x+y+z)

Product-Of-Maxterm Examples
F(a, b, c, d) = (1, 3, 6, 11)
F(a, b, c, d) = M1 M3 M6 M11
(a+b+c+d) (a+b+c+d) (a+b+c+d) (a+b+c+d)
G(a, b, c, d) = (0, 4, 12, 15)
G(a, b, c, d) = M0 M4 M12 M15
(a+b+c+d) (a+b+c+d) (a+b+c+d) (a+b+c+d)

Observations
We can implement any function by "ORing" the minterms
corresponding to the 1 entries in the function table. A
minterm evaluates to 1 for its corresponding entry.
We can implement any function by "ANDing" the maxterms
corresponding to 0 entries in the function table. A maxterm
evaluates to 0 for its corresponding entry.
The same Boolean function can be expressed in two canonical
ways: Sum-of-Minterms (SOM) and Product-of-Maxterms
(POM).
If a Boolean function has fewer 1 entries then the SOM
canonical form will contain fewer literals than POM. However,
if it has fewer 0 entries then the POM form will have fewer
literals than SOM.

Converting to Sum-of-Minterms Form

A function that is not in the Sum-of-Minterms form can
be converted to that form by means of a truth table
Consider F = y + x z
x y z

Minterm

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
0
1
1
0
0

m0 = x y z
m1 = x y z
m2 = x y z

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

m4 = x y z
m5 = x y z

F = (0, 1, 2, 4, 5) =
m0 + m1 + m2 + m4 + m5 =
xyz+xyz+xyz+
xyz+xyz

Converting to Product-of-Maxterms Form

A function that is not in the Product-of-Minterms form
can be converted to that form by means of a truth table
Consider again: F = y + x z
x y z

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
0
1
1
0
0

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

Minterm

F = (3, 6, 7) =
M3 M6 M7 =

M3 = (x+y+z)

M6 = (x+y+z)
M7 = (x+y+z)

(x+y+z) (x+y+z) (x+y+z)

Conversions Between Canonical Forms

x

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

0
1
1
1
0
1
0
1

Minterm

Maxterm
M0 = (x + y + z)

m1 = x y z
m2 = x y z
m3 = x y z
M4 = (x + y + z)
m5 = x y z
M6 = (x + y + z)
m7 = x y z

F = m1+m2+m3+m5+m7 = (1, 2, 3, 5, 7) =
xyz+xyz+xyz+xyz+xyz
F = M0 M4 M6 = (0, 4, 6) = (x+y+z)(x+y+z)(x+y+z)

Algebraic Conversion to Sum-of-Minterms

Expand all terms first to explicitly list all minterms
AND any term missing a variable v with (v + v)
Example 1: f = x + x y
(2 variables)
f = x (y + y) + x y
f=xy+xy+xy
f = m3 + m2 + m0 = (0, 2, 3)
Example 2: g = a + b c (3 variables)
g = a (b + b)(c + c) + (a + a) b c
g=abc+abc+abc+abc+abc+abc
g=abc+abc+abc+abc+abc
g = m1 + m4 + m5 + m6 + m7 = (1, 4, 5, 6, 7)

Algebraic Conversion to Product-of-Maxterms

Expand all terms first to explicitly list all maxterms
OR any term missing a variable v with v v
Example 1: f = x + x y
(2 variables)
Apply 2nd distributive law:
f = (x + x) (x + y) = 1 (x + y) = (x + y) = M1
Example 2: g = a c + b c + a b
(3 variables)
g = (a c + b c + a) (a c + b c + b) (distributive)
g = (c + b c + a) (a c + c + b)
(x + x y = x + y)
g = (c + b + a) (a + c + b)
(x + x y = x + y)
g = (a + b + c) (a + b + c) = M5 . M2 = (2, 5)

Function Complements
The complement of a function expressed as a
sum of minterms is constructed by selecting the
minterms missing in the sum-of-minterms
canonical form
Alternatively, the complement of a function
expressed by a Sum of Minterms form is simply
the Product of Maxterms with the same indices
Example: Given F(x, y, z) = (1, 3, 5, 7)

F(x, y, z) = (0, 2, 4, 6)
F(x, y, z) = (1, 3, 5, 7)

Summary of Minterms and Maxterms

There are 2n minterms and maxterms for Boolean
functions with n variables.
Minterms and maxterms are indexed from 0 to 2n 1
Any Boolean function can be expressed as a logical
sum of minterms and as a logical product of maxterms
The complement of a function contains those minterms
not included in the original function
The complement of a sum-of-minterms is a product-ofmaxterms with the same indices

Standard Forms
Standard Sum-of-Products (SOP) form:
equations are written as an OR of AND terms
Standard Product-of-Sums (POS) form:
equations are written as an AND of OR terms
Examples:
SOP: A B C A B C B
POS: (A B) (A B C ) C
These mixed forms are neither SOP nor POS
(A B C) (A C)
A B C A C (A B)

Standard Sum-of-Products (SOP)

A sum of minterms form for n variables can
be written down directly from a truth table.
Implementation of this form is a two-level
network of gates such that:
The first level consists of n-input AND gates
The second level is a single OR gate

This form often can be simplified so that the

corresponding circuit is simpler.

Standard Sum-of-Products (SOP)

A Simplification Example:

F( A, B, C)

(1,4,5,6,7)

Writing the minterm expression:

F = A B C + A B C + A B C + ABC + ABC
Simplifying:
F = A B C + A (B C + B C + B C + B C)
F = A B C + A (B (C + C) + B (C + C))
F = A B C + A (B + B)
F= AB C + A
F=BC+A
Simplified F contains 3 literals compared to 15

AND/OR Two-Level Implementation

The two implementations for F are shown below

B
C

It is quite
apparent which
is simpler!

SOP and POS Observations

The previous examples show that:
Canonical Forms (Sum-of-minterms, Product-of-Maxterms),
or other standard forms (SOP, POS) differ in complexity
Boolean algebra can be used to manipulate equations into
simpler forms
Simpler equations lead to simpler implementations

Questions:
How can we attain a simplest expression?
Is there only one minimum cost circuit?
The next part will deal with these issues

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