Roz`ain

Syakirah
Izzah
Rabi`atul

What is Digestion?
Digestion is a catabolic process in
which large complex molecules
(carbohydrates,
lipids,
proteins,
nucleic acids) are broken down into
simpler
monomers
(monosaccharides, glycerol and fatty
acids, amino acids, and nucleotides)
which can be absorbed by the body.

Function

Types of Digestion

Proses Pencernaan

Six Processes of Digestion

1. Ingestion getting food into the
mouth
2. Propulsion moving foods from
one region of the digestive system to
another
3. Mechanical digestion
Mixing of food in the mouth by the
tongue
Churning of food in the stomach
Segmentation in the small intestine

4.

5.

6.

Chemical Digestion

Enzymes break down food molecules into their

building blocks
Each major food group uses different enzymes
Carbohydrates are broken to simple sugars
Proteins are broken to amino acids
Fats are broken to fatty acids and alcohols

Absorption

End products of digestion are absorbed in the

blood or lymph
Food must enter mucosal cells and then into
blood or lymph capillaries

Defecation

Elimination of indigestible substances as feces

Proses Pencernaan

Alimentary Canal Organs

Accessory Digestive Organs

Mouth Oral Cavity (Ac)

Mastication
(chewing) of food
Mixing masticated
food with saliva
Initiation of
swallowing by the
tongue
Allowing for the
sense of taste

Salivary Glands (Ac)

Salivary Glands:
Saliva-producing glands
Parotid glands located anterior to ears
Submandibular glands
Sublingual glands

Saliva:
Mixture of mucus and serous fluids
Helps to form a food bolus
Contains salivary amylase to begin starch
digestion
Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted

Teeth (Ac)

The role is to masticate

(chew) food
Humans have two sets of
teeth
Deciduous (baby or milk)
teeth
20 teeth are fully formed by
age two

Permanent teeth
Replace deciduous teeth
beginning between the ages
of 6 to 12
A full set is 32 teeth, but
some people do not have
wisdom teeth

Types of teeth:
Incisors - cutting
Canines - tearing
Premolars shearing,
shredding
Molars - grinding

Tooth Structure
Crown exposed part
Outer enamel
Dentin
Pulp cavity

Neck
Region in contact with
the gum
Connects crown to root

Root
Periodontal membrane
attached to the bone
Root canal carrying blood
vessels and nerves

Pharynx (Al)
Serves as a passageway
for air and food
Food is propelled to the
esophagus by two
muscle layers
Longitudinal inner layer
Circular outer layer

Food movement is by
alternating contractions
of the muscle layers
(peristalsis)

Esophagus (Al)
Runs from pharynx to stomach
through the diaphragm
Conducts food by peristalsis
(slow rhythmic squeezing)
Passageway for food only (respiratory
system branches off after the
pharynx)

Liver and Gall Bladder (Accessory

Organs)
Largest gland in the body
Composition
Bile salts
Bile pigment (mostly
bilirubin from the
breakdown of hemoglobin)
Cholesterol
Phospholipids
Electrolytes

Stores bile from the liver

by way of the cystic duct
Bile is introduced into the
duodenum in the
presence of fatty food
Gallstones can cause
blockages

Stomach

Stomach (Al)
Located on the left side of the abdominal cavity
Food enters at the cardioesophageal sphincter
Regions of the stomach

Cardiac region near the heart

Fundus
Body
Pylorus funnel-shaped terminal end

Food empties into the small intestine at the

pyloric sphincter
Rugae internal folds of the mucosa
External regions
Lesser curvature
Greater curvature

Function of Stomach
Acts as a storage
tank for food
Site of food
breakdown
Chemical
breakdown of
protein begins
Delivers chyme
(processed food) to
the small intestine

Pancreas (Ac)
Produces a wide spectrum of digestive
enzymes that break down all categories
of food
Enzymes are secreted into the
duodenum
Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes
neutralizes acidic chyme
Endocrine products of pancreas
Insulin
Glucagon

Large Intestine (Al)

Larger in diameter, but
shorter than the small
intestine
Frames the internal abdomen
Cecum saclike first part of
the large intestine
Appendix
Accumulation of lymphatic
tissue that sometimes
becomes inflamed
(appendicitis)
Hangs from the cecum

Colon

Ascending
Transverse
Descending
S-shaped sigmoidal

Rectum
Anus external body
opening

Functions of Large Intestine

Absorption of water
Eliminates indigestible food from the body
as feces
Does not participate in digestion or
absorption of digested food
Goblet cells produce mucus to act as a
lubricant
Site of production of Vitamin K by symbiotic
bacteria which live off the remains of food
that have not been digested or absorbed in
the small intestine. These bacteria produce
over 50% of fecal matter.

Small Intestine (Al)

The bodys major digestive organ all
digestion of food is completed in this organ
Site of nutrient absorption into the blood
Duodenum (25cm = 10 inches) 12 finger
widths long
Attached to the stomach
Curves around the head of the pancreas
Where bile and pancreatic juices enter the
alimentary canal

Jejunum (2.5m = 8 feet) empty

Attaches anteriorly to the duodenum

Ileum (3.6m = 12 feet) twisted

Extends from jejunum to large intestine

Small Intestine (Internal

Structure)
Villi are small fingerlike
structures formed by the
mucosa
Give the small intestine
more surface area for
absorption
Fold in the intestine are
called circular folds or
plicae circulares
Deep folds of the mucosa
and submucosa
Do not disappear when
filled with food
The submucosa has
Peyers patches
(collections of lymphatic
tissue)

Villi Internal Structure and

Function
Absorptive cells are found on
the surface epithelium which
are simple columnar
microvilliated epithelium
Blood capillaries are below the
surface epithelium and this is
where monosaccharides,
amino acids, and nucleic acids
enter into the blood stream
and are taken to the liver for
processing
Lacteals (specialized lymphatic
capillaries) where lipids are
absorbed and eventually reenter the blood stream to be
taken to the liver for
processing.

DIGESTION OF NUTRIENT

WHAT IS NUTRIENT?
Substance in food that is used by the
body to promote normal
growth ,maintenance and repair.
Divide into 6 categories
major
nutrient:carbohydrate,lipids,water
and
protein
minor nutrient:vitamin and mineral

WHAT IS DIGESTION?
Process of breaking down ingested food
into small molecule
For example:
-In mouth,salivary amylase convert
starch to maltose,maltotriose and a-dextrin
-In stomach,pepsin convert protein to
peptide
-Lingual and gastric lipases convert
triglycerides into fatty acid,diglycerides
and monoglycerides

DIGESTION OF
CARBOHYDRATE
Salivary amylase keep continue in
stomach but then it was stop by acidic
pH. So, just a few starches are broken
down
Starches that not already broken down
into maltose,maltotriose and a-dextrins
are cleaved by pancreatic amylase
Although pancreatic amylase acts
both on glycogen and starches but it
doesnt effect cellulose

 After amylase split starch into small

fragment,a brush-border enzyme
called a-dextrinase acts on the
resulting a-dextrins,clipping off one
glucose unit at a time
Ingested molecules of sucrose,lactose
and maltose (disaccharides)-are not
acted on until they reach small
intestine

 Sucrase breaks sucrose into molecule

of glucose and fructose
Lactase digest lactose into molecule of
glucose and galactose
Maltase split maltose and maltotriose
into two or tree molecules of
glucose,respectively
Digestion of carbohydrate ends with
production of monosaccharides,which
the digestive system is able to absorb

DIGESTION OF PROTEIN
Protein are fragmented into peptide by
action of pepsin
Enzyme in pancreatic juicetrypsin,chymotrypsin,carboxypeptid
ase and elastase-continue to break
down protein into peptide
Although all these enzyme convert whole
protein into peptide,their action differ
somewhere bcoz each split peptide
bonds between different amino acid

 Trypsin,chymotrypsin and elastase

all cleave the peptide bond between a
specific amino acid and its neighbor
Carboxypeptidase splits off the
amino acid at the end of peptide
Protein digestion is completed by two
peptidase in aminopeptidase and
dipeptidase

 Aminopeptidase cleaves off amino

acid at the amino end of peptide
Dipeptidase splits dipeptides into
single amino acid

DIGESTION OF LIPIDS
The most abundant lipids in diet are
triglycerides,consist of molecule of glycerol
bonded to three fatty acid molecule
Enzyme that split triglycerides and
phospholipids are called lipase
Three type of lipases that can participate
in lipid digestion are lingual lipase,gastric
lipase and pancreatic lipase

 Triglycerides are broken down by

pancreatic lipase into fatty acid and
monoglycerides
Large lipid globule containing
triglyceride can be digested in the small
intestine,and it undergo emulsification
Emulsification-process in which large
lipid globule is broken down into several
small lipid globule.it involve bile

 The small lipid globule formed from

emulsification provide a large surface
area that allow pancreatic juice to
function more effectively

DIGESTION OF NUCLEIC
ACID
Pancreatic juice contain two
nucleases:ribonuclease which digest
RNA and deoxyribonuclease which
digest DNA
Result of the action of this two nuclease
are further digested by nucleosidases
and phosphatase into
pentose,phosphates and nitrogenous base
These product are absorbed via active
tansport

ABSORPTION

WHAT IS ABSORPTION?
Passage of digested nutrients
from gastrointestinal tract
into the blood or lymph

ABSORPTION OF
MONOSACCHARIDES
The capacity of small intestine to
absorb monosaccharide is huge-an
estimated 120 grams per hour
As a result, all dietary carbohydrate
that are digested normally are
absorbed, leaving only indigestible
cellulose and fiber in feces.
Monosaccharides pass from the lumen
through the apical membrane via
facilitated diffusion or active transport.

-Fructose(found in fruit)-is transported

via facilitated diffusion
-Glucose and galactose are transported
into absorptive cells of the villi via
secondary active transport that is
coupled to the active transport of Na+
Monosaccharide then move out of
absorptive cells through their basolateral
surface via facilitated diffusion and enter
the capillaries of the villi

ABSORPTION OF AMINO
ACIDS,DIPEPTIDES AND
TRIPEPTIDES

Protein is absorbed as amino acid via

active transport, mainly occur in
deodenum and jejunum
Half of the absorbed amino acid are
present in food and the other half
come from the body itself as protein
in digestive juice and dead cells that
slough off the mucosal surface.

 95-98% of the protein present in small

intestine is digested and absorbed.
Different transporter carry different
type of amino acid
-some amino acid enter absorptive
cell of the villi via Na+ dependent
secondary active transport which is
silmilar to the glucose transporter and
the other amino acid are actively
transported by themselves

 Amino acid move out of the

absorptive cells via diffusion and
enter capillaries of the villus
:both monosaccharides and amino
acid are transported in the blood to
the liver by way of hepatic portal
system.

ABSORPTION OF LIPID
All dietary lipid are absorbed via simple
diffusion
Because of emulsification and digestion;
triglycerides are mainly broken down into
monoglycerides and fatty acid, which can be
short-chain fatty acid or long-chain fatty acid
Short-chain fatty acid are hydrophopic and
small in size. Thus, they can dissolve in the
watery instestinal chyme,pass through the
absorptive cells via simple diffusion

 Long-chain fatty acid are large and

hydrophobic and have difficulty being
suspended in the watery environment
of the intestinal chyme. So, bile salt
help them to be more soluble
Bile salt surround the long-chain fatty
acid and forming tiny sphere called
micelles.

 The micelles move from the interior

of the small intestinal lumen to the
absorptive cell.
At that point, long-chain fatty acid
diffuse out of the micelle into
absorptive cells, leaving micelles
behind the chyme

ABSORPTION OF
ELECTROLYTE
Electrolyte that are absorbed by the
small intestine come from
gastrointestinal secretions and some
are part of ingested foods and liquids
Recall that electrolyte are compound
that separate into ions in water and
conduct electricity

 Sodium ion are actively transported out

of absorptive cells by basolateral
sodium-potassium pump after they have
moved into absorptive cells via diffusion
and secondary active transport.
Negatively charge
bicarbonate,chloride,iodide and nitrate
ion can passively follow Na+ or actively
transported

 Calcium ion also are absorbed

actively in a process stimulated by
calcitriol
Other electrolyte such as
iron,potassium,magnesium and
phosphate ions are absorbed via
active transport mechanism

ABSORPTION OF VITAMINS
Fat soluble vitamin A,D,E and K are
included with digested dietary lipid
and absorbed via simple diffusion
Water-soluble vitamin such as B and
C also absorbed via simple diffusion.
However B12 combine with intrinsic
factor produced by the stomach and
combination is absorbed in the ileum
via an active transport mechanism

ABSORPTION OF WATER
the total volume of fluid that enter small
intestine each day about 9.3 liters-comes
from ingestion of liquid and from various
gastrointestinal secretion
The small intestine absorbs about 8.3 liters of
fluid; the remainder passes into the large
intestine, where most of the rest of it-about
0.9 liter
Only 0.1 liter of water is excreted in the feces
each day. Most is excreted via urinary sytem

 All water absorption in GI tract occur via

osmosis from the lumen of the intestine
through absorptive cells and into blood
capillaries
Because water can move across the intestinal
mucosa in both direction, the absorption of
water from small intestine depend on the
absorption of electrolyte and nutrient to
maintain osmotic balance with blood
The absorbed electrolyte,monosaccharides
and amino acid establish a concentration
gradient for water that promote water
absorption via osmosis

METABOLISMA

Metabolisma
Tindak balas kimiayang berlaku
dalamselhidup yang membolehkan sel
membesar dan membiak dan mengekalkan
struktur mereka.
Dibahagikan kepada dua jenis :
1)Katabolisme: menghasilkan tenaga, seperti
pemecahan makanan dalamrepirasi sel.
1)Anabolisme : memenggunakan tenaga
untuk membentuk komponen sel
sepertiproteindanasid nukleik.

Laluan Metabolik

Metabolisma karbohidrat
Tdpt 3 jenis kmpln utama karbohidrat iaitu :
a) Monosakarida gula ringkas : glukosa
b) Disakarida gula kompleks : maltosa
c) Polisakarida gula kompleks y bsr : kanji,glikogen
Laluan ini melibatkanpemecahan molekul-molekul
karbohidratdi dalam organ hati, kerana hati menyimpan
glukos.
Glukosa merupakan monosakarida yang paling penting
dalam metabolisme tubuh.
Glukosa yang terkandung dalam nutrisi masuk ke dalam
sistem sirkulasi atau ke dalam darah untuk dipindah ke selsel tubuh yang memerlukannya atau diubah pada hati
menjadi molekul yang lain.

Glukosa adalah sumber tenaga utama bagi sel-sel haiwan,

dan merupakan satu-satunya sumber tenaga bagi manusia.

METABOLISMA LIPID

Lipid

Lipid ialah sebatian organik

yang mengandungi karbon,
hidrogen, dan oksigen.
Jenis utama lipid adlh lemak,
minyak, fosfolipid, dan
steroid sprti
kolesterol,testosteron,estroge
n dan progesteron.
Lemak & minyak adlh cnth
lipid y dtempatkan dlm
kategori trigliserida, y tdiri
drp 1 gliserol dan 3 asid
lemak.

METABOLISMA PROTEIN
Protein adalah molekul-molekul y bsr &
kompleks.
Monomer bgi protein adlh asid amino.
Selbadan akn mengeluarkanasid
aminodaripada
darahdanmenggunakannyauntuk membina
protein,untuk kegunaan sendiri(enzymes,
membranes, muscle protein) dan untuk
mengeksport(mucus,hormones).
ATPakan tbentuk jikaglukosadanlemaktidak
mencukupiatau jikakekurangan Asidamino.

METABOLISMA NUKLEIK ASID

Asid nukleik
merupakan sejenis
makromolekul yang
terdiri daripada
rantaian nukleotida.
Dalam biokimia
molekul ini mampu
membawa maklumat
atau membentuk
struktur dalam sel.

Asid nukleik yang biasa termasuk asid deoksiribonukleik (DNA) dan asid
ribonukleik (RNA). Asid nukleik terdapat dalam semua benda hidup,
kerana mereka terkandung dalam segala sel. Asid nukleik juga terdapat di
dalam virus.

Metabolismeasid nukleikadalahprosesyangmana nukleotidadisintesis.

Sintesis asid nukleikjuga merupakan satu

mekanisme,anabolikumumnyamelibatkantindak balas
kimiafosfat,gulapentose,danasasbernitrogen.

Pemusnahanasid nukleikadalah

prosedurkatabolikumumnyamelibatkantindak balasenzim.

Diet dan Pemakanan

Diet Seimbang
Pengambilan makanan yang mengandungi
semua nutrien seperti protein,karbohidrat,
lemak, vitamin, garam mineral, dan air serta
pelawas dalam kuantiti yang diperlukan.
Pemakanan
kajian berkaitan dengan pengambilan
makanan untuk proses pertumbuhan
,pemulihan dan pengawalan kesihatan.

Kumpulan Makanan
Asas

Fungsi

Kesan
berlebihan

Kesan
kekurangan

Karbohidrat

Membekalkan tenaga
lebihan berat
utama untuk keperluan badan
badan

Marasmus(ptumb
uhan tbantut)

Protein

membentuk dan
membaiki tisu,
membentuk enzim,
antibodi, hormon,
agen pengangkut

lemak mningkat,
paras kalsium drh
tjejas

penghasilan
antibodi menurun
& risiko jangkitan
meningkat.
Penyakit
Kwasyiokor

Lemak

membekalkan tenaga
& pengekalan suhu,
membekalkan asid
lemak perlu,
penyerapan vitamin
larut lemak

lebihan berat
badan

Kekurangan berat
badan

Garam Galian
Dibahagikan kpd 2 kumpulan :
- Makronutrien (dplukan dlm Kuantiti bsr)
- Mikronutrien (dplukan dlm kuantiti kecil)

Makronutri
en

sumber

fungsi

Kesan
kekurangan

Kalsium

susu, keju,
ikan bilis,
bijirin

mbina tlg & gigi yang kuat, mnolong

pmbekuan drh, dplukan untk pengecutan
otot & pmindahan impuls saraf.

riket,osteopor
osis,
pdarahan
bpnjangan.

Magnesium

Bijirin,syrn
hijau,susu,
daging

Menjana enzim yang diperlukan untuk

mengeluarkan tenaga dalam tubuh.
Diperlukan oleh tubuh dalam
pembentukan bahan genetik dan
pertumbuhan tulang.

Otot lemah

Susu,
daging,
pisang,
sayuran
hijau

Pemindahan impuls saraf, pengecutan otot

Ganguan dlm
sstm saraf

Fosforus

Susu,
daging,
bijirin, telur

Mbntk tulang & gigi yang kuat,

menggiatkan enzim-enzim yang
diperlukan tubuh untuk menukarkan
makanan kepada tenaga.

Tulang rapuh,
kerosakan
gigi.

Natrium

Garam,
daging,

Mngekalkan keseimbangan air dlm bdn,

mngekalkan tknn osmosis cecair dlm bdn.

Kekejangan
otot

kalium

Mikronutrien

sumber

Fungsi

Kesan
kekurangan

Iodin

Udang, kerang,
makanan laut

Mbntk hormon
tiroksina

Goiter, kretinisme
pd knk-knk

Besi

Hati, bayam,
kacang, telur
kuning

Mbntk
hemoglobin

Anemia

Florin

Air minuman, teh, Mengukuhkan

sayuran
enamel pd gigi

Karies gigi

Vitamin
Kumpulan sebatian organik yang diperlukan dalam
kuantiti yang kecil untuk memelihara dan mengekalkan
kesihatan.
Dikelaskan kepada 2 kumpulan :
a) Larut lemak:
- tidak dapat dikumuh melalui air kencing tetapi
disimpan dalam badan
- vitamin A, D, E dan K.
a) Larut air:
- tidak dapat disimpan dalam badan dan sebarang
kuantiti berlebihan akan larut dalam air dan
dikumuhkan keluar melalui air kencing.
- Vitamin B kompleks dan vitamin C.

jenis

sumber

fungsi

Kesan
kekurangan

Vitamin
C

buah-buahan.

memelihara tisu phubung,

kshtn kulit & pemulihan
luka yang cepat,
mngkatkan ketahanan thdp
jgkitan

skurvi ( gusi
bdarah, kulit
lebam, sendi
bgkak)

Vitamin
D

Keju, mentega dan

telur.

mbantu pnyerapan kalsium penyakit riket,

& fosforus, mbina tulang
karies gigi
dan gigi yang kuat

Vitamin
E

sayuran
hijau,minyak kelapa
sawit.

memelihara kshtn sstm

otot, saraf & sstm pedaran
darah, bhn poksidaan bgi
asid lmk tepu

kemorosotan
otot & saraf

Vitamin
K

hati,bayam dan
kubis.

mbantu dalam pembekuan

darah

bdarah secara
berlebihan

Vitamin
A

susu, tomato, lobak

merah

Membina pigmen pada

retina mata untuk
penglihatan jelas pada
waktu malam &
memastikan ptumbuhan
sel epitelium kulit yang
sihat.

rabun malam,
kulit tidak
yang sihat

Air
Merupakan 70% drp berat bdn manusia.
Peranan :
a)Sbg pelarut
b)Medium tndk bls kimia dlm bdn.
c)Medium pengangkutan bhn mknn tcerna,
oksigen, bhn pkumuhan.
d)Pengawalaturan suhu bdn : Bila kekurangan air,
suhu tubuh akan menjadi panas dan naik.
Khdiran air akan mbntu mstabilkan suhu bdn.
e)Sbg pelincir : mngurangkan geseran tulang pd
sendi.
f) Pkumuhan : urea,asid urik & grm mineral
blebihan dsingkirkn melalui air kencing dan
peluh.

TENAGA

Tenaga Penting dalam Tubuh

1. Tenaga Kinetik:
Tenaga yang dibekalkan oleh sebatian
ikatan bertenaga tinggi seperti ATP, ADP,
dll.
2. Tenaga berpotensi:
Tenaga yang tidak aktif disimpan di
dalam badan dalam bentuk glikogen dan
yang terdapat dalam makanan.
83

Pengukuran Tenaga
1. Kalori: Jumlah tenaga haba yang
diperlukan untuk menaikkan suhu satu gram
air sebanyak satu darjah celsius.
2. Kilokalori (Kcal)
Jumlah haba yang diperlukan untuk
meningkatkan suhu 1 kg. air sebanyak
sebanyak 1 darjah celsius.
3. Unit metrik yang digunakan ialah kilojoule(KJ)
1 Kilokalori (Kcal) = 4.184 KJ)
84

Pengukuran Nilai Tenaga dalam Makanan

Dengan menggunakan alat kalorimeter
Jumlah tenaga yang dihasilkan oleh setiap
sampel protein, lemak dan karbohidrat
1 g. Karbohidrat
=
4 kcal
1 g. Lemak
=
9 kcal
1 g. Protein
=
4 kcal
1 g. Alkohol
=
7 kcal
85

Contoh Pengiraan 1
Berapakah nilai tenaga yang dalam satu gelas susu
beratnya 244g ? Jika dalam susu 100g susu
mengandungi:
4.9g CHO; 3.5g protein; 3.7g lemak; 0.6 mineral dan
1.2g vitamin
CHO
=244/100 x 4.9g x 4kcal = 47.8 kcal
Protein =
244/100 x 3.5g x 4kcal = 34.2
kcal
Lemak = 244/100 x 3.7g x 9kcal = 81.3 kcal
Jumlah nilai tenaga

= 163.3 kcal
86

Contoh pengiraan 2

Diet mengandungi 2200 kcal dan mengandungi

210g CHO, dan 120g lemak, kira:
Berapakah jumlah g protein dalam sajian?
Kira peratus setiap nutrien [CHO, protein dan
lemak] dalam sajian?

87

a.

Jumlah g protein

CHO membekal = 210 x 4 kcal

Lemak membekal = 120 x 9 kcal
Protein
= 2200 (1080 + 840)
Jumlah g protein = 280/4
=

= 840 kcal
= 1080 kcal
= 280 kcal
70 g

b. Peratus CHO, Protein dan Lemak

Peratus CHO = 840/2200 x 100 =
Peratus Lemak = 1080/2200 x 100 =
Peratus Protein = 280/2200 x 100 =

38.2%
49.1%
12.7%
88

Soalan:
1. Potato crisps mengandungi 6.3 g protein, 35.9g lemak

dan 49.3 karbohidrat pada tiap-tiap 100 g.

Kira nilai tenaga yang terdapat dalam 200 g potato
crips?

2. Berapakah jumlah nilai tenaga dalam satu keping

daging beratnya 90g jika dalam 100g daging
mengandungi 15.3g protein, 18.8g lemak, 0.1g
karbohidrat , 0.2g mineral 0.2 vitamins dan 65.5g air ?

89

3. Diet Pak Ali membekal 2600 kcal sehari. Diet tersebut

mengandungi 250g karbohidrat, 70g protein. Kira?
a.
Berapakah jumlah g lemak dalam diet Pak Ali
pada hari tersebut?
b.

Kira peratus setiap nutrien (karbohidrat,

protein dan lemak) yang terdapat dalam diet
Pak Ali ?

90

Input Tenaga
Tenaga/kilokalori yang terdapat dalam makanan

Output Tenaga
Tenaga yang diperlukan @ digunakan
oleh tubuh untuk beberapa perkara:
Kadar Metabolisme Asas [Basal Energy
Rate]
Aktiviti Fizikal
Pertumbuhan
Tindakan Spesifik Dinamik Makanan
91

Bilakah Kadar Metabolisme Asas diukur?

1. Selepas 12 18 jam mengambil
makanan terakhir.
2. Seseorang dalam keadaan rehat.
3. Dalam bilik yang sesuai, suhu selesa.
4. Kebiasaan diukur selepas bangun
tidur waktu pagi.

92

Pengukuran Penggunaan tenaga

Jumlah tenaga yang dijana @ digunakan
oleh tubuh dapat diukur secara langsung @
tidak langsung.
Kilorimetri Langsung
Individu diletakkan di dalam kilokalorimeter
/bilik khas
Kaedah sangat mahal. Cuma beberapa unit
terdapat di seluruh dunia
Di Malaysia hanya satu, terdapat di Universiti
Hospital.
93

Kilorimetri Tak Langsung

Kaedah yang lebih mudah
Diukur dengan menentukan penggunaan oksigen dan
pengeluaran karbon dioksida pada masa tertentu
dengan menggunakan alat respirasi
Dapat digunakan semasa individu berbaring rehat @
menjalankan berbagai aktiviti
Pada setiap liter oksigen yang digunakan akan
memerlukan 4.825 kilokalori tenaga.
94

Kadar Metabolisme Asas [KMA]

Basal Metabolisme Rate[BMR]
Kadar Metabolisme Asas
- Jumlah tenaga yang diperlukan oleh
tubuh untuk menjalankan proses-proses
penting dalam tubuh.
- Kadar tubuh menggunakan tenaga untuk
kekalkan fungsi penting untuk hidup.
Kadar Metabolisme Rehat (KMR)
- Penggunaan tenaga pada keadaan yang
sama kecuali selepas makan atau berlatih
95

Kaedah mengira keperluan tenaga untuk

KMA (Basal Metabolisme Rate)

1. Menggunakan anggaran 1
kilokalori/minit
=
60 m/jam X 24jam/hari
=
1440 kilokalori/hari

96

2. Alat Respiratori Bebedict-Roth (Penggunaan O2)

Ali mengambil 1.08 liter O2 dalam masa 6 minit.
Kira berapa jumlah keperluan tenaga KMA
dalam sehari ? [Piawai 1 liter O2 = 4.825 kcal]
6 minit Ali mengambil 1.08 liter oksigen
1 jam (60 minit) =
1.08 x 60/6
= 10.8 liter Oksigen
Sehari (24 jam) =
10.8 liter x 24 jam
= 259.2 liter Oksigen
KMA
=
259.2 x 4.825
= 1251 kcal.
97

3.

Berasaskan Berat badan,

Umur & Jantina

Lelaki
< 50 tahun
> 50 tahun
Wanita
< 50 tahun
> 50 tahun

= 1.0 kcal/kg X BB/1 Jam

= 0.9 kcal/kg X BB/1 Jam
= 0.9 kcal/kg X BB/1 Jam
= 0.8 kcal/kg X BB/1 Jam
98

Contoh:
Kira berapakah jumlah tenaga untuk KMA dalam
sehari bagi mereka yang berikut?
a. En. Adam berumur 45 tahun mempunyai berat
badan 65 kg
Keperluan tenaga KMA = 1 x 65 x 24 jam
= 1560 kcal
b. Cik Fatimah berumur 26 tahun mempunyai berat
badan 46 kg.
Keperluan tenaga KMA = 0.9 x 46 x 24 jam
= 993.6 kcal
99

 Kira berapakah jumlah tenaga untuk KMA dalam sehari bagi

mereka berikut?
1. En. Ramlee berumur 45 tahun mempunyai berat badan
65 kg ?
2. Cik Fatimah berumur 25 tahun mempunyai berat badan
46 kg.
3. Pak Adam berumur 66 tahun mempunyai berat badan
63 kg
4. Mak Timah berumur 70 tahun mempunyai berat badan
81 kg.
100

4. Kaedah Pengiraan WHO.

Gunakan Berat badan (dalam kg)

Wanita
Berat dalam Kg x 0.95 kcal x 24 jam
Lelaki
Berat dalam Kg x 1.0 kcal x 24 jam

Contoh:
Aminah berumur 13 tahun dan berat badan 50 kg.
50kg x 0.95 kcal x 24 jam =
1140 Kcal

Ramlee, berat badan 58 kg dan berumur 25 tahun

58kg x 1.0 kcal x 24 jam =
1392 Kcal
101

 Kira berapakah jumlah tenaga untuk KMA dalam sehari bagi

mereka mengikut kiraan WHO?
1. En. Yunus berumur 48 tahun mempunyai berat badan
73 kg ?
2. Cik Rohani berumur 28 tahun mempunyai berat badan
53 kg.
3. Hamidah berumur 35 tahun mempunyai berat badan
62 kg
4. Halim berumur 70 tahun mempunyai berat badan
74 kg.
102

Formula FAO/WHO untuk ukur REE

[Resting Energy Expenditure]
Lelaki
3- 9
22.7w) + 495
10 - 17
17.5w + 651
18 - 29
15.3w + 679
30 - 60
11.6w + 879
> 60
13.5w + 487

103

Formula FAO/WHO untuk ukur REE bagi

Wanita

3-9
10-17

22.5w +
499
12.2w + 746

18-29

14.7w + 496

30-60

8.7w + 829

> 60

10.5w + 596
104

Latihan:
1. Aminah mempunyai berat badan 50 kg. , berumur 18
tahun . Kirakan keperluan tenaga Aminah dalam sehari
dengan menggunakan Formula REE ?
= 14.7 w + 496
= ( 14.7 x 50 ) + 496
= 735 + 496
= 1231 kcal/hari
2. Hamid mempunyai berat badan 78kg dan berumur 33
tahun. Kirakan keperluan tenaga dengan Formula
REE?
105

Faktor-Faktor yang mempengaruhi

Kadar Metabolisme Asas seseorang

1. Komposisi tubuh
-

Kandungan tisu seseorang.

Tisu tanpa lemak (otot) : tinggi KMA
Tisu berlemak sedikit tenaga
Lelaki perlu KMA tinggi kerana mempunyai
lebih tisu tanpa lemak.

106

2.

3.

4.
5.

Keadaan Tubuh: Jalankan aktiviti Fizikal

- 2 lelaki sama umur, tinggi & berat badan
- Jalankan tugas fizikal yang berbeza. Seorang buruh dan
seorang akauntan
- Buruh perlu banyak KMA berbanding akauntan kerana buruh
mempunyai otot-otot terbentuk berbanding akauntan
Jantina:
- Lelaki lebih tenaga KMA berbanding wanita
- Lelaki muda dewasa mempunyai 14% lemak daripada berat badan
- Wanita muda dewasa mempunyai 23%- 32% lemak daripada berat
badan
Tidur:
Kurang tenaga KMA
Malnutrisi:
Tenaga KMA rendah
107

6.
7.

8.

9.

Tekanan mental: lebih tenaga bagi orang. yang mengalami masalah

mental
Suhu Tubuh
- Kalau suhu tubuh tinggi KMA tinggi
- Setiap 1 darjah tambahan suhu boleh tingkatkan 13 kcal KMA badan
Suhu persekitaran
- suhu panas kita perlu KMA yang rendah
- suhu sejuk kadar KMA tinggi bagi panaskan badan
Kehamilan
- Tenaga KMA tinggi untuk menghamil bayi
300- 330 kcal lebih daripada wanita biasa
- Ibu menyusu KMA tinggi bagi proses mengeluarkan susu
500- 550 kcal lebih daripada wanita biasa

10. Umur:
Umur meningkat keperluan KMA menurun
11. Merokok: lebih 10 peratus daripada orang tidak merokok

108

Soalan:
Norzalina 25 tahun, tinggi 1.63 m dan berat badan
65 kg. Berikut adalah jumlah kalori yang dimakan iaitu
karbohidrat 190g; protein 120g dan lemak 93g mengikut
24-jam dietary recallnya.

a.

b.

Dengan menggunakan data di atas kirakan:

(i)
jumlah kalori dan tunjukkan peratus
karbohidrat, protein dan lemak ?
(ii)
Peratus pengambilan makanan
Beri penjelasan tentang diet yang diamalkan oleh
Norzalina mengikut perkiraan WHO menggunakan
(i) berat badan dan (ii)norma REE

109

(i)

Jumlah pengambilan kalori:

a.
b.
c.

karbohidrat
protein
lemak

=
=
=

190 X 4 kcal
120 X 4 kcal
93 X 9 kcal
Jumlah

= 760 kcal
= 480kcal
= 837 kcal
= 2077kcal

(ii) Peratus pengambilan makanan

a.
b.
c.

karbohidrat
protein
lemak

=
=
=

760/2077 X 100
480/2077 X 100
837 /2077 X 100

= 36.6 %
= 23.1 %
= 40.3%
110

 i.

Berat badan dengan perkiraan WHO

=
0.95 kcal X kg (berat badan) X 24 jam
=
0.95 kcal X 65 kg X 24 jam
=
1482 kcal

ii. Berat badan berdasarkan Norm

=
(14.7W) + 496
=
(14.7 X 65 ) + 496
=
955.5 + 496
=
1451.5 kcal
111

 Berdasarkan penjadualan Pemakanan

Norzalina telah mengambil lebihan
makanan:

Mengikut kiraan berat badan mengikut

Formula WHO
=
595 kcal

[2077 1482]

Mengikut keperluan norm

=
525.9 kcal [2077 1551.1 ]

112

Menu 3000-4000kcal

113

Menu 4000-5000kcal

114

Menu 5000-6000kcal

115

Body Energy Balance

Energy intake = total energy output
(heat + work + energy storage)
Energy intake is liberated during food
oxidation
Energy output
Heat is usually about 60%
Storage energy is in the form of fat or
glycogen
Copyright2003PearsonEducation,Inc.publishingasBenjaminCummings

Slide

Digestive Homeostasis
Disorders
ULCERS erosion of the surface of
the alimentary canal generally
associated with some kind of
irritant

Digestive Homeostasis
Disorders
CONSTIPATION a
condition in which the
large intestine is
emptied with
difficulty.
Too much water is
reabsorbed
and the solid waste
hardens

Digestive Homeostasis
Disorders
DIARRHEA a gastrointestinal
disturbance characterized by
decreased water absorption
and increased peristaltic
activity of the large intestine.
This results in increased,
multiple, watery feces.
This condition may result in
severe dehydration,
especially in infants

Digestive Homeostasis
Disorders
APPENDICITIS an inflammation of
the appendix due to infection
Common treatment is removal of the
appendix via surgery

Digestive Homeostasis
Disorders
GALLSTONES an accumulation of
hardened cholesterol and/or
calcium deposits in the gallbladder
Can either be passed (OUCH!!)
or surgically removed

Digestive Homeostasis
Disorders

ANOREXIA NERVOSA - a psychological

condition where an individual thinks
they appear overweight and refuses
to eat.
Weighs 85% or less than what is
developmentally expected for age
and height
Young girls do not begin to
menstruate at the appropriate age.

Digestive Homeostasis
Disorders
HEART BURN ACID from the
stomach backs up into the
esophagus.

Sekian, Terima Kasih

http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
ew0/chapter26/animation__organs_of
_digestion.html