Seventh Edition

CHAPTER

MECHANICS OF
MATERIALS
Ferdinand P. Beer
E. Russell Johnston, Jr.
John T. DeWolf
David F. Mazurek

Stress and Strain

Axial Loading

Lecture Notes:
Brock E. Barry
U.S. Military Academy

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Beer Johnston DeWolf Mazurek

Stress & Strain: Axial Loading

Suitability of a structure or machine may depend on the deformations in
the structure as well as the stresses induced under loading. Statics
analyses alone are not sufficient.
Considering structures as deformable allows determination of member
forces and reactions which are statically indeterminate .
Determination of the stress distribution within a member also requires
consideration of deformations in the member.
Chapter 2 is concerned with deformation of a structural member under
axial loading. Later chapters will deal with torsional and pure bending
loads.

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Normal Strain

Fig. 2.1 Undeformed

and deformed axially
loaded rod.

Fig. 2.3 Twice the load is

required to obtain the same
deformation when the
cross-sectional area is
doubled.
Fig. 2.4 The deformation is
doubled when the rod length
is doubled while keeping the
load P and cross-sectional
area A.

P
stress
A

normal strain
L

2P P

2A A

A
2

2L L

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Stress-Strain Test

Photo 2.2 Universal test machine used to test

tensile specimens.

Photo 2.3 Elongated tensile test

specimen having load P and deformed
length L > L0.

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Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials

Fig. 2.6 Stress-strain diagrams of two typical ductile materials.

Photo 2.4 Ductile material tested
specimens: (a) with cross-section
necking, (b) ruptured.

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Stress-Strain Diagram: Brittle Materials

Fig 2.7 Stress-strain diagram for a typical brittle material.

Photo 2.5 Ruptured brittle materials specimen.

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Hookes Law: Modulus of Elasticity

Below the yield stress

E
E Youngs Modulus or
Modulus of Elasticity
Strength is affected by alloying,
heat treating, and manufacturing
process but stiffness (Modulus of
Elasticity) is not.
Fig 2.11 Stress-strain diagrams for iron and
different grades of steel.

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Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior

If the strain disappears when the
stress is removed, the material is
said to behave elastically.
The largest stress for which this
occurs is called the elastic limit.

Fig. 2.13 Stress-strain response of ductile

material load beyond yield and unloaded.

When the strain does not return

to zero after the stress is
removed, plastic deformation
of the material has taken place.

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Fatigue
Fatigue properties are shown on
-N diagrams.
A member may fail due to fatigue
at stress levels significantly
below the ultimate strength if
subjected to many loading cycles.

Fig. 2.16 Typical -n curves.

When the stress is reduced below

the endurance limit, fatigue
failures do not occur for any
number of cycles.

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Deformations Under Axial Loading

From Hookes Law:

E AE

From the definition of strain:

L
Equating and solving for the deformation,
PL

AE

Fig. 2.17 Undeformed and

deformed axially-loaded rod.

With variations in loading, cross-section or

material properties,
PL
i i
i Ai Ei

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Concept Application 2.1

SOLUTION:
Divide the rod into components at
the load application points.
E 29 106 psi

Determine the deformation of

the steel rod shown under the
given loads.

Apply a free-body analysis on

each component to determine the
internal force
Evaluate the total of the component
deflections.

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Concept Application 2.1

SOLUTION:
Divide the rod into three
components:

Apply free-body analysis to each

component to determine internal forces,
P1 60 103 lb
P2 15 103 lb
P3 30 103 lb

Evaluate total deflection,

Pi Li 1 P1L1 P2 L2 P3 L3

A
E
E
A
A
A
i i i
1
2
3

60 103 12 15 103 12 30 103 16

6
0
.
9
0
.
9
0
.
3
29 10

L1 L2 12 in.

L3 16 in.

A1 A2 0.9 in 2

A3 0.3 in 2

75.9 103 in.

75.9 103 in.

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Sample Problem 2.1

SOLUTION:

The rigid bar BDE is supported by two

links AB and CD.

Apply a free-body analysis to the bar

BDE to find the forces exerted by
links AB and DC.
Evaluate the deformation of links
AB and DC or the displacements of
B and D.

Work out the geometry to find the

Link AB is made of aluminum (E = 70
deflection at E given the deflections
GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of 500
at B and D.
mm2. Link CD is made of steel (E = 200
GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of
(600 mm2).
For the 30-kN force shown, determine the
deflection (a) of B, (b) of D, and (c) of E.
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Sample Problem 2.1

SOLUTION:

Displacement of B:
B

Free body: Bar BDE

PL
AE

60 103 N 0.3 m

500 10-6 m2 70 109 Pa

514 10 6 m

M 0
B

0 30 kN)(0.6 m FCD (0.2 m)

B 0.514 mm

Displacement of D:

FCD 90 kN FCD 90 kN tension

M 0
D

0 30 kN 0.4 m FAB 0.2 m

FAB 60 kN FAB 60 kN compressio n

PL
AE

90 103 N 0.4 m

600 10-6 m2 200 109 Pa

300 10 6 m

D 0.300 mm
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Sample Problem 2.1

Displacement of D:
BB BH

DD HD
0.514 mm 200 mm x

0.300 mm
x
x 73.7 mm
EE HE

DD HD

400 73.7 mm
E

0.300 mm
73.7 mm
E 1.928 mm
E 1.928 mm

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Poissons Ratio
For a slender bar subjected to axial loading:

x x y z 0
E
The elongation in the x-direction is
accompanied by a contraction in the other
directions. Assuming that the material is
homogeneous and isotropic (no directional
Fig. 2.29 A bar in uniaxial tension and a
dependence),
representative stress element.
y z 0
Poissons ratio is defined as

lateral strain

y z
axial strain
x
x

Fig. 2.30 Materials undergo transverse

contraction when elongated under axial load.

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Shearing Strain
A cubic element subjected to only shearing stress
will deform into a rhomboid. The corresponding
shearing strain is quantified in terms of the change
in angle between the sides,

xy f xy

Fig. 2.36 Unit cubic element

subjected to shearing stress.

A plot of shearing stress vs. shearing strain is similar

to the previous plots of normal stress vs. normal
strain except that the strength values are
approximately half. For values of shearing strain
that do not exceed the proportional limit,

xy G xy yz G yz zx G zx

Fig. 2.37 Deformation of unit cubic

element due to shearing stress.

where G is the modulus of rigidity or shear

modulus.

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Concept Application 2.10

SOLUTION:
Determine the average angular
deformation or shearing strain of
the block.

Fig. 2.41(a) Rectangular block loaded in shear.

A rectangular block of material with

modulus of rigidity G = 90 ksi is
bonded to two rigid horizontal plates.
The lower plate is fixed, while the
upper plate is subjected to a horizontal
force P. Knowing that the upper plate
moves through 0.04 in. under the action
of the force, determine (a) the average
shearing strain in the material, and (b)
the force P exerted on the plate.

Apply Hookes law for shearing stress

and strain to find the corresponding
shearing stress.
Use the definition of shearing stress to
find the force P.

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Concept Application 2.10

Determine the average angular deformation
or shearing strain of the block.
xy tan xy

Fig. 2.41(b) Deformed block showing

the shear strain.

0.04 in.
2 in.

xy 0.020 rad

Apply Hookes law for shearing stress and

strain to find the corresponding shearing
stress.

xy G xy 90 103 psi 0.020 rad 1800 psi

Use the definition of shearing stress to

find the force P.
P xy A 1800 psi 8 in. 2.5 in. 36 103 lb
P 36.0 kips

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Relation Between E, and G

An axially loaded slender bar will

elongate in the x direction and contract in
both of the transverse y and z directions.
An initially cubic element oriented as in
Figure 2.42(a) will deform into a
rectangular parallelepiped. The axial load
produces a normal strain.
If the cubic element is oriented as in
Figure 2.42(b), it will deform into a
rhombus. Axial load also results in a
shearing strain.
Components of normal and shearing strain
are related,
Fig. 2.42 Representations of strain in an axially
loaded bar: (a) cubicstrain element faces aligned
with coordinate axes; (b) cubicstrain element
faces rotated 45 about z-axis.

E
1
2G

or

E
21

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Edition

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MECHANICS
MATERIALS
Saint-VenantsOF
Principle

Loads transmitted through rigid plates result in uniform distribution of stress

and strain.
Concentrated loads result in large stresses in the vicinity of the load application
point.
Fig. 2.47 Axial load
applied by rigid plates to
rubber model.

Fig. 2.48 Concentrated

axial load applied to
rubber model.

Fig. 2.49 Stress distributions in a

plate under concentrated axial loads.

Stress and strain distributions

become uniform at a relatively short
distance from the load application
points.
Saint-Venants Principle:
Stress distribution may be assumed
independent of the mode of load
application except in the immediate
vicinity of load application points.

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