Dynamical Systems 1

Introduction
Ing. Jaroslav Jra, CSc.

Definition
Dynamical system is a system that changes over time according to a
set of fixed rules that determine how one state of the system moves to
another state.
Dynamical system is a phase space together with a transformation of
that space

A dynamical system has two parts

a) a state vector, which describes exactly the state of some real or
hypothetical system
b) a function, which tells us, given the current state, what the state of
the system will be in the next instant of time

A state vector can be described by

x (t ) [ x1 (t ), x2 (t ),......, xn (t )]
A function can be described by a single function or by a set of functions

f1 ( x1 , x2 ,...., xn ), f 2 ( x1 , x2 ,...., xn ),...., f n ( x1 , x2 ,...., xn )

Entire system can be then described by a set of differential equations equations of
motion

dx1
x 1 f1 ( x1 , x2 ,...., xn )
dt
dx2
x 2 f 2 ( x1 , x2 ,...., xn )
dt
.
.
dxn
x n f n ( x1 , x2 ,...., xn )
dt

Classification of Dynamical Systems

Linear

Nonlinear

Autonomous

Nonautonomous

Conservative

Nonconservative

Discrete

Continous

One-dimensional

Multidimensional

Linear system a function describing the system behavior must

satisfy two basic properties
additivity
f ( x y ) f ( x) f ( y )
homogeneity

f ( x) f ( x)

For example f(x) = 3x; f(y) = 3y;

additivity
f(x+y) = 3(x+y) = 3x + 3y = f(x) + f(y)
homogeneity
5 * f(x) = 5* 3x = 15x = f(5x)

Nonlinear system is described by a nonlinear function. It does not

satisfy previous basic properties
For example f(x) = x2; f(y) = y2;

f ( x y ) ( x y ) 2 x 2 2 xy y 2 f ( x) f ( y ) x 2 y 2
f (5 x) (5 x) 2 25 x 2 5 f ( x) 5 x 2

Autonomous system is a system of ordinary differential equations, which do

not depend on the independent variable. If the independent variable is time,
we call it time-invariant system.
Condition: If the input signal x(t) produces an output y(t) then any time shifted
input, x(t + ), results in a time-shifted output y(t + )
Example: we have two systems
System A:

System B:

y (t ) 10 x(t )

System A:
Start with a delay of the input

Now we delay the output by

Clearly
nonautonomous.

, therefore the system is not time-invariant or is

System B:
Start with a delay of the input

Now delay the output by

Clearly

therefore the system is time-invariant or autonomous.

Conservative system - the total mechanical energy remains constant,

there are no dissipations present, e.g. simple harmonic oscillator
Nonconservative (dissipative) system the total mechanical energy
changes due to dissipations like friction or damping, e.g. damped
harmonic oscillator

Discrete system is described be a difference equation or set of equations. In

case of a single equation we are also talking about one-dimensional map. We
denote time by k, and the system is typically specified by the equations

x(0) x 0
x(k 1) f ( x(k ))
x(k ) f k ( x0 )
The system can be solved by iteration calculation. Typical example is annual
progress of a bank account. If the initial deposit is 100000 crowns and annual
interest is 3%, then we can describe the system by

x(0) 100000
x(k 1) 1.03 x(k )
x(k ) 1.03k *100000

Continous system is described by a differential equation or a set of

equations.

x(0) x0
x f ( x)
For example, vertical throw is described by initial conditions h(0), v(0)
and equations

h(t ) v(t )
v(t ) g

where h is height and v is velocity of a body.

Definition from the Mathematica: When the reals are acting, the system
is called a continuous dynamical system, and when the integers are
acting, the system is called a discrete dynamical system.

One-dimensional system is described by a single function like

x(k 1) ax(k ) b
x(t ) ax(t ) b
where a,b are constants.
Multidimensional system is described by a vector of functions like

x (k 1) Ax (k ) B

x(t ) Ax (t ) B

where x is a vector with n components, A is n x n matrix and B is a

constant vector

Repetition From the Matrix Algebra

Matrix A
a11
A a21
a31

a12
a22
a32

a13
a23
a33

a11b11 a12b21 a13b31

A.B a21b11 a22b21 a23b31
a31b11 a32b21 a33b31
a c a c a c
11 1 12 2 13 3
A.C a21c1 a22 c2 a23c3
a31c1 a32 c2 a33c3

Matrix B
b11 b12
B b21 b22
b31 b32

b13

b23
b33

a11b12 a12b22 a13b32

a21b12 a22b22 a23b32
a31b12 a32b22 a33b32

Vector C
c
1
C c2
c3
a11b13 a12b23 a13b33

a21b13 a22b23 a23b33

a31b13 a32b23 a33b33

Identity matrix (unit matrix),

we use symbol E or I

Determinant

1 0 0
E 0 1 0
0 0 1
d11
D
d12

d 21

d 22

det(D) d11d 22 d 21d12

a11
A a21
a31

a12
a22
a32

a13 a11
a23 a21
a33 a31

a12
a22
a32

det( A ) a11a22 a33 a12 a23a31 a13 a21a32 a11a23a32 a12 a21a33 a13 a22 a31

Inversion matrix 2x2

a b

c
d

a b
1
A

c
d

1 a b
1 a b

c d

c
d
det( A)
ad

cb

Inversion matrix 3x3

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

The eigenvectors of a square matrix are the non-zero vectors which,
after being multiplied by the matrix, remain proportional to the original
vector (i.e. change only in magnitude, not in direction). For each
eigenvector, the corresponding eigenvalue is the factor by which the
eigenvector changes when multiplied by the matrix.

Au u
For the eigenvalue calculation we use the formula

det( A E) 0


( A E)u 0

For the eigenvector calculation we use the formula:

a11
a
21

Two-dimensional example:

a12
a22

u1
u 0
2

If we are successful in finding eigenvalues, we can say, that we found a

diagonal matrix, which is similar to the original matrix. The diagonal matrix has
the same properties like the original one for the purpose of solving dynamical
system stability. We write the diagonal matrix in the form:

1 0
0
2

0
0

...

0
0
0

What are advantages of diagonal matrix?

1. Multidimensional discrete system.
The typical formula is:

To obtain k-th element:

k
x (k ) A x (0)

x (k 1) Ax (k )

Raising matrices to the power is quite difficult, but in case of diagonal matrix we
simply have:

1k

A
0

2
0
0

0
...

0
0

2. Multidimensional continous system.

The typical differential equation:

Solution of the equation:

dx
Ax (t )
dt

x (t ) x0 exp( At )

Using matrices as an argument for the exponential function is much more difficult
than raising them to the power, but in case of diagonal matrix we can write:

e 1 t

exp( At )
0

2t

0
0

0
0

...

nt
0 e

Example for eigenvalue and eigenvector calculation

Initial matrix

4 2
A

1 5

Characteristic equation

2
4
det( A E) det
0

5
1
(4 )(5 ) 2 2 9 18 0

1 6; 2 3

Eigenvalues
Eigenvector calculation
2
4 1
1
5 1

u1 2 2
u 1 1

u1
u 0
2

4 2
1

2
5 2

2u1 2u2 0

u1 2u 2 0

u1 u2 0

u1 2u 2 0

1
u1
1

2
u2

u1 1 2 u1
u 1 2 u 0
2
2

Any vector that satisfies condition u1=u2 is an eigenvector for the =6

Any vector that satisfies condition u1=-2u2 is an eigenvector for the =3

Automatic eigenvalue and eigenvector calculation in the Mathematica

Trace of a matrix is a sum of the elements on the main diagonal

Tr ( A) a11 a22 .... ann

Jacobian matrix is the matrix of all first-order partial derivatives of a vectoror scalar-valued function with respect to another vector. This matrix is
frequently being marked as J, Df or A.
dx1
x 1 f1 ( x1 , x2 ,...., xn )
dt
dx2
x 2 f 2 ( x1 , x2 ,...., xn )
dt
.
.
dxn
x n f n ( x1 , x2 ,...., xn )
dt

f1
x
1
f 2
J x1
...

f n
x1

f1
x2
f 2
x2
...
f n
x2

f1
xn

f 2
...
xn
...

f n
...
xn
...

Phase Portraits
A phase space is a space in which all possible states of a system are
represented, with each possible state of the system corresponding to
one unique point in the phase space.

The phase space of a two-dimensional system is called a phase

plane, which occurs in classical mechanics for a single particle
moving in one dimension, and where the two variables are position
and velocity.
For mechanical systems, the phase space usually consists of all
possible values of position and velocity variables. A plot of position
and velocity variables as a function of time is sometimes called a
phase diagram.
A phase portrait is a plot of single phase curve or multiple phase
curves corresponding to different initial conditions in the same
phase plane.

A phase portrait of a simple harmonic oscillator

x 2 x 0

Differential equation

where x is displacement, v is
velocity, A is amplitude
and is angular frequency.

x A cos(t )
v A sin(t )

Solution of the equation

Now we separate sine and cosine functions, raise both equations to the power
of two and finally we add them.

x
cos(t )
A
v
sin(t )
A

x

A

cos 2 (t )
2

sin 2 (t )

Final equation describes an ellipse

x

A

x

A

cos 2 (t ) sin 2 (t ) 1

The following figure shows a phase portrait of a simple harmonic oscillator

with =10 s-1 and initial conditions x(0)=1 m; v(0)=0 m/s

x

A

x
v

1
10

Creating a phase portrait of a damped oscillator in Matlab

y 2y 2 y 0
y 2y 2 y
y1 y
y2 y

function [t,y] = oscil(delta)

tspan=[0,7];
init=[1;0];
omega=10;
[t,y]=ode45(@f,tspan,init);
plot(y(:,1),y(:,2));

y 1 y
y 2 y 2 y 2 y
y 1 y2
y 2 2 y2 y1
2

y1 (0) y (0) 1
y2 (0) y (0) 0

%Creation of graph description.

xlabel('displacement [m]')
ylabel('velocity [m/s]')
title('A damped harmonic oscillator');
axis([-1 1 -10 10]);
function yprime=f(t,y)
yprime=zeros(2,1);
yprime(1)=y(2);
yprime(2)=-2*delta*y(2)-omega^2*y(1);
end
clc
end

Oscillator with critical damping

= 10s-1; = 10s-1
x(0)=1m; v(0)=0 m/s

Overdamped oscillator
= 10s-1; = 20s-1
x(0)=1m; v(0)=0 m/s

Underdamped oscillator
= 10s-1; = 1s-1
x(0)=1m; v(0)=0 m/s

Simple harmonic oscillator

initial amplitudes are 1,2, ,10 m

Creating a phase portrait of an oscillator in Mathematica

Stability and Fixed Points

A fixed point is a special point of the dynamical system which does not change
in time. It is also called an equilibrium, steady-state, or singular point of the
system.
If a system is defined by an equation dx/dt = f(x), then the fixed point x~ can be
found by examining of condition f(x~)=0. We need not know analytic solution of
x(t).
For discrete time systems we examine condition x~ = f(x~)
An attractor is a set towards which a dynamical system evolves over time. It
can be a point, a curve or more complicated structure
A stable fixed point: for all starting values x0 near the x~ the system converges
to the x~ as t.
A marginally stable (neutral) fixed point: for all starting values x0 near x~, the
system stays near x~ but does not converge to x~ .
An unstable fixed point: for starting values x0 very near x~ the system moves
far away from x~
A perturbation is a small change in a physical system, most often in a physical
system at equilibrium that is disturbed from the outside.

Phase portraits of basic three types of fixed points

STABLE

MARGINALLY STABLE

UNSTABLE

Example 1 bacteria in a jar

A jar is filled with a nutritive solution and some bacteria. Let b (for birth) be
relative rate at which the bacteria reproduce and p (for perish) be relative rate at
which they die. Then the population is growing at the rate r = bp.
If there are x bacteria in the jar, then the rate at which the number of bacteria is
increasing is (b p)x, that is, dx/dt = rx. Solution of this equation fox x(0)=x0 is

x(t ) x0 e rt
This model is not realistic, because bacteria population goes to the for r>0.
Actually, as the number of bacteria rises, they crowd each other, produce more
toxic waste products etc. Instead of constant relative perish rate p we will assume
relative perish rate dependent on their number px. Now the number of bacteria
increases by bx and their number decreases by px2.
New differential equation will be

dx
2
bx px
dt

Differential equation,
initial number of bacteria
x(0)=x0

dx
bx px 2
dt

Analytic solution provided

by Mathematica
To be able to find a fixed point,
we have to set the right-hand
side of the differential equation
to zero.
There are two possible solutions,
i.e. we have two fixed points:

b~
x p~
x2 0
~
x (b p~
x) 0

~
x1 0
b
~
x2
p

First fixed point x~1= 0;

There are no bacteria, so none can be born, none can die, but after small
contamination of the jar (perturbation), but smaller than b/p, we can see, that
the number of bacteria will increase by dx/dt = bx-px2>0 and will never return
to the zero state.
Conclusion: this fixed point is unstable.
Second point x~2= b/p;
At this population level, bacteria are being born at a rate bx~=b(b/p) = b2/p and
are dying at a rate px~2 = p(b/p)2 = b2/p, so birth and death rates are exactly in
balance.
If the number of bacteria would be slightly increased, then dx/dt = bx-px2<0
and would return to equilibrium.
If the number of bacteria would be slightly decreased, then dx/dt = bx-px2>0
and would return to equilibrium.
Small perturbations away from x~ = b/p will self-correct back to b/p.
Conclusion: this fixed point is stable and is also an attractor of this system.

Graphic solution from Mathematica

Input parameters: b=0.2, p=0.5
Initial conditions: x0= 0.9 for blue lines
x0= 0.01 for red lines
Phase portrait

Number of bacteria in time

dx
0 .1 0

dt

x
1 .0

0 .8
0 .0 5

b /p

0 .6

0 .4
0 .0 0
0 .2

0 .0

10

20

30

40

0 .0 5

0 .1 0

0 .2

0 .4

0 .6

0 .8

1 .0

Example 2 predator and prey

Now we have a biological system containing two species predators (wolves)
and prey (rabbits).
Population of rabbits in time is r(t) and population of wolves is w(t).
Rabbits, left on their own, will reproduce with velocity dr/dt= ar, where a>0
Wolves, without rabbits, will starve and their population will decline with velocity
dw/dt= -bw, where b>0
When brought into the same environment, wolves will catch and eat rabbits. Loss
to the rabbit population will be proportional to number of wolves w and number of
rabbits r by a constant g (aggressivity of predators). Gain to the wolf population
will be also proportional to r and w, this time by a constant h (effectivity of
transformation of prey meat into the predator biomass).
Here are differential equations
describing the closed system

dr
ar grw
dt
dw
bw hrw
dt

Here is time dependence and phase diagram for both populations

a=0.3; b=0.1; g=0.002; h=0.001, initial number of rabbits r0=100, wolves w0=25

Number of populations over time

Phase portrait

An attractor of this system drawn on the phase diagram is a limit cycle.

With higher rabbit natality and higher wolf mortality together with higher wolf
aggressivity the changes are quicker
a=0.75; b=0.2; g=0.03; h=0.01

Number of populations over time

Phase portrait

With extremely low rabbit natality and low wolf mortality togehter with high wolf
aggressivity both civilizations will vanish
a=0.01; b=0.05; g=0.05; h=0.05

Number of populations over time

Phase portrait

Source codes from Matlab for both types of graphs

function [t, x, y] = predator

function [t, x, y] = predatorparam

a=0.2;
b=0.1;
g=0.002;
h=0.001;
tend=200;

a=0.2;
b=0.1;
g=0.002;
h=0.001;
tend=200;

x0 = [100; 25];
[t, xvec] = ode45(@f, [0, tend], x0);

x0 = [100; 25];
[t, xvec] = ode45(@f, [0, tend], x0);

x = xvec(:, 1);
y = xvec(:, 2);

x = xvec(:, 1);
y = xvec(:, 2);

% Plot of the solution

p=plot(t,x,t,y);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('number');
hleg = legend('Rabbits','Wolves');

% Plot of the solution

p=plot(x,y);
xlabel('Rabbits');
ylabel('Wolves');

function xdot = f(t, x)

xdot= [ a*x(1) - g*x(1)*x(2); ...
-b*x(2) + h*x(1)*x(2)];
end
end

function xdot = f(t, x)

xdot= [ a*x(1) - g*x(1)*x(2); ...
-b*x(2) + h*x(1)*x(2)];
end
end