Power Quality in Low Voltage

Power Quality in Low Voltage
Installations
Power Quality Partnership
David Chapman, CDA
Ken West, Fluke UK
David Bradley, Rhopoint Systems
Shri Karve, MGE UPS Systems
Copper Development Association
Programme
Introduction to the Power Quality Partnership & LPQI
David Chapman, CDA
Introduction to power Quality

David Chapman, CDA
Power Quality Measurement

Ken West, Fluke UK and David Bradley, Rhopoint Systems Ltd
Power Quality Improvement Techniques

Shri Karve, MGE UPS Sysytems
Earthing Issues in Power Quality

David Chapman, CDA
An Introduction to Power Quality

David Chapman, CDA
What is Power Quality ?

IEEE
..the concept of powering and grounding sensitive
electronic equipment in a manner suitable for the
equipment
LPQI
..a supply that is always available, always within
voltage and frequency tolerance, with a pure, noise
free, sinusoidal wave shape
Sankaran (modified)
..a set of boundaries that allow electrical appliances
and systems to function as intended without significant
loss of lifetime or performance
Power Quality Issues

Electricity is a raw material but unlike any other
consumed at the instant of production
many miles from producer
transported over a shared (and vulnerable) network
no chance for goods-in inspection
The epitome of Just in Time - but without a

close customer/supplier relationship

US
WSJ, 1992
CEIDS, 2002
$ 13 B/yr
$ 119 - 188 B/yr
Eurelectric 2002
Canada $ 650 m
France $ 25 B
Germany $ 20-25 B
Spain
$ 6-7 B
World
several 100 B$/yr
ECI 2000
Europe
15 - 20 B/yr

The Cost of (poor) Power Quality
Electricity supply chain
Loss of revenue for electricity not supplied
Loss of customer confidence - but so what?
Customer can only choose who sends the bill
- not who carries electricity to the plant

Consumer
Process disruption
Glass production
Paper making
Data processing
Financial losses
Idle labour
Waste of raw materials
Value of work in progress destroyed

Consumer
Shortened equipment lifetime
e.g. Transformers
Unexpected early failure
Overloading of equipment
Potential catastrophic failure
Chain reaction

Compatibility concept
Compatibility Level
Probability Density
Total supply
network
disturbance
Immunity
(test) levels
Emission
limits for
individual
sources
Disturbance Level
Susceptibility of
local equipment

The Cost of Power Quality Solutions

Voltage stability
Harmonics
Resilience
Earth ing and
EMC
Voltage stability
Tolerance (long term)
Unbalance (long or short term)
Disturbances (shorter term)
Dips and surges
Outages, Blackouts
Transients
Flicker
Voltage stability - tolerance

Standard EN50160
Supply voltage variations:
Under normal operation conditions, excluding situations
arising from faults or voltage interruptions:
during each one week period 95% of 10 minute
average rms values of the supply voltage shall be
within the range of Un 10%
all 10 minute averages of the supply voltage shall
be within the range of Un +10%/-15%
Voltage stability - Unbalance

Causes of unbalance:
Generators, Transformers
Unbalanced impedance
long, non-transposed low voltage lines
Unbalanced load currents

single-phase loads on three-phase systems, e.g.
railways
Embedded generation

Background:

Background:

Standard EN50160
Supply voltage unbalance
Under normal operating conditions, during each period
of one week, 95% of the 10 minute mean rms values of
the negative phase sequence component of the supply
voltage shall be within the range 0 to 2% of the positive
phase sequence component
In some areas with partly single phase or two phase
connected customers installations, unbalances up to
about 3% at three-phase supply terminals occur

Effects of unbalance:
Motors
reduced torque
bearing wear
excessive heating -> lower efficiency
Transformers
homopolar components cause excess heat in delta
windings
negative sequence transformed normally

Effects of unbalance:
Equipment capacity
RMS current includes useless negative sequence
currents
additional losses in cables etc
affects protection settings
Electronic power converters

generate uncharacteristic harmonics - problem for
passive filtering

Mitigation of unbalance
Careful distribution of loads
dont just put everything on the red phase!
Transpose lines on long routes

especially LV feeds to remote equipment (pumping stations)
Keep impedance low

dont convert current unbalance to voltage unbalance
Connect at highest possible voltage level

lower current and lower impedance (eg: railways)
Connect heavy single phase loads via special transformers

Scott & Steinmetz transformers
Voltage stability - Dips

Voltage dips - nomenclature
e.g:
..a 120 ms dip to 32%..
Voltage stability - dips

Standard EN50160
Supply voltage dips
Under normal operation conditions the expected
number of voltage dips may be from a few
to one
tens up
thousand in a year
The majority of voltage dips have a duration less than 1

second and depth less than 60%. (Retained voltage
>40%)
Voltage stability - interruptions

Standard EN50160
Short interruptions (up to 3 min)
Under normal operation conditions the annual
occurrence of short interruptions of the supply voltage
ranges from up to a few
tens to up to several
hundreds
The duration of approximately 70% of the short
interruptions may
be less than one second
Voltage stability - interruptions

Standard EN50160
Long interruption (> than 3 min)
Under normal operation conditions the annual
frequency of voltage interruptions longer than 3
minutes may be less than
depending on the area
10 or up to 50
This does not include interruptions announced in

advance
Voltage disturbance statistics

Type of
disturbance
Best
Avg
Worst
Transients
19
164
Swells
164
6,714
Sags
90
7,121
Interruptions
16
146
Total
289
Source: Dorr, US Canada 1992 - 1994

Voltage stability
Causes of Voltage Dips
Installation issues
starting of heavy loads
Distribution and transmission
Faults on the distribution network
line damage
bird strikes
vandalism
equipment failure
weather
Area of Vulnerability
Plant
Plant
Plant
Plant
Network faults - auto-reclosers

Auto-reclosers reclose a circuit breaker a few
hundred milliseconds after it has opened
Often, the fault has been cleared by the fault
current - tree branches burnt away for
example - so the duration of the fault is
minimised

If the fault is still present, the re-closer may
operate again perhaps up to 10 times
This is a good thing for the customers on branch in question
fault duration is minimised
for the supplier no call-out is needed

But
customers see multiple dips
The trade off is between power failures and
dips
Suppliers interests favour dips!
Keep customer minutes lost to a minimum
Voltage stability
Responsibility
Network can never be fault free
Reducing number of dips would require
enormous investment to reduce number and
impact of faults
Relatively few customers (by number, not load)
would benefit

The Cost of Power Quality Solutions

CBEMA Voltage tolerance curve

ITIC Voltage tolerance curve

ANSI Voltage tolerance curve

Network performance
Network performance
ITIC
Required immunity

Equipment performance PC
2001
2002
1999
2000
1997
1998
Voltage stability
VSD - Dip in a single phase
Voltage stability
VSD - dip in all three phases

AC Contactor construction

AC Contactor

Mitigation of voltage dips
Dynamic voltage
restorer (DVR)
Grid upgrade
Large static UPS

Rotary UPS
Small UPS
CVT
Voltage regulator
Transients
Transients are
high speed
microseconds
large magnitude
few hundred to several thousand volts
Transients
Transients originate from
network switching
capacitor compensation
load switching
dynamic power factor correction
arc welding
lightning - not direct strike
Transients
Transients are high frequency signals
magnitude reduces quickly as they travel
across network
close transients important
distant transients less important
Effects of Transients
Transients can cause
instantaneous equipment damage
equipment degradation
temporary loss of functionality
communications blackout
permanent data loss
Transients - mitigation
Switching effects
reduced by proper equipment design
Lightning effects
reduced by surge arrestors on network, incoming
services, etc.
Voltage stability - Flicker

Defined by Symptoms
variation in light intensity from tungsten filament
lamps
defined in terms of perception
Causes
rapidly fluctuating cyclic loads
e.g. spot welders
Flicker mitigation
reduce supply source impedance for problem load
fast-acting power electronics solutions

Standard EN50160
Rapid voltage changes
Magnitude of rapid voltage changes
Under normal conditions a rapid voltage change
generally will not exceed 5% Un, but a change of up
to 10% Un with a short duration might occur several
times per day
Flicker severity
Under normal operation conditions, in any period of
one week the long term flicker severity caused by
fluctuation should be Plt 1 for 95% of the time
Harmonic currents
Harmonic currents are caused by non-linear loads
Switched mode power supplies (SMPS)
Electronic fluorescent lighting ballasts
Variable speed drives
Un-interruptible power supplies (UPS)
Harmonic currents
Typical Switched mode power supply current waveform
Harmonic currents
Harmonic spectrum of SMPS current
Harmonic currents
Harmonic profile of a three phase 6-pulse load
Six pulse bridge - harmonic current
25
20
15
%
10
0
1
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Harmonic number
Harmonic currents
Equivalent circuit of a non-linear load
Harmonic currents
Problems caused by harmonic currents:
currents within the installation
overloading of neutrals
overheating of transformers
nuisance tripping of circuit breakers
over-stressing of power factor correction capacitors
skin effect
voltages within the installation

voltage distortion & zero-crossing noise
overheating of induction motors
currents in the supply

Neutral conductor current
Harmonic currents
Neutral conductor sizing IEC standard 60364-52
Harmonic currents
Effect on transformers
Transformers supplying harmonic loads must be
appropriately de-rated
Harmonic currents, being of higher frequency, cause
increased magnetic losses in the core and increased
eddy current and skin effect losses in the windings
Triple-n harmonic currents circulate in delta windings,
increasing resistive losses, operating temperature and
reducing effective load capacity
Harmonic currents
Harmonic currents in the supply
Harmonic currents flowing back into the supply
cause harmonic voltages that spread around the
network
Suppliers limit the level of harmonic current that a
user can allow back onto the supply network
G5/4 covers these limits
Harmonic compatibility
Planning levels
Probability Density
Total supply
network
disturbance
Compatibility Level
Immunity
(test) levels
Emission
limits for
individual
sources
Disturbance Level
Susceptibility of
local equipment
Harmonics
Standard EN50160
Harmonic voltage
Under normal operation conditions, during each period
of one week, 95% of the 10 minute mean rms values of
each individual harmonic voltage shall be less than or
equal to the value given...
Moreover, the THD of the supply voltage (including all
harmonics up to the order 40) shall be less than or
equal to 8%.
Harmonics
The Challenge:
to keep harmonic currents below levels
that cause equipment overload and damage within the
installation
that are permitted by G5/4
to keep the harmonic voltage distortion at the point of common
coupling below levels permitted by G5/4
Harmonic standards
Electricity Association Engineering Recommendation
G 5/4 (2001)
BS EN 61000
IEEE Std 519-1992 Recommended Practices and
Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical
Power Systems
ISBN
1 - 55937 - 239 - 7
Harmonic mitigation
Steps to be taken to reduce voltage distortion on the
supply include, for example:
Passive harmonic filters
Isolation transformers
Active harmonic conditioners
Harmonic mitigation
Passive filters are useful when
the harmonic profile is well defined such as motor
controllers
the lowest harmonic is well above the fundamental
frequency
- but filter design can be difficult and, especially for
lower harmonics, the filters can be bulky and
expensive
Harmonic mitigation
Harmonic mitigation
Delta - Zigzag transformers
R
N
Harmonic mitigation
Delta - Zig zag transformers
Load
I3
Interconnected Star
Transformer sized for
harmonic currents only
Harmonic mitigation
Delta-star transformers
Harmonic mitigation
Active conditioners
Where the harmonic profile is unpredictable or
contains a high level of lower harmonics, active
filters are useful
Active harmonic conditioners operate by injecting a
compensating current to cancel the harmonic
current
Harmonic mitigation
Is + Ih
Is
CT
Ih
AHC
Introduction to Reliability
Reliability
Availability
Resilience
Redundancy
Reliability
1 .1
1 .0
(t)
0 .9
F a ilu r e
R a te
(t)
0 .8
0 .7
0 .6
0 .5
0 .4
0 .3
0 .2
0 .1
3
11
13
15
17
19
21
23
E la p s e d T im e ( d a y s )
25
27
29
31
33
35
37
Reliability
Reliability is measured in terms of Mean
time to failure or MTTF.
Total operating time for all components

MTTF
No of failures at that time
What is Availability?
Availability is the proportion time for which a
system is serviceable. It is defined as:
MTBF
Availabili ty
MTBF MTTR
In most circumstances it is the availability of the

system that is of most concern
Availability
Availability, expressed as a simple percentage,
tells us nothing!
e.g. Availability of 99.9% may mean that the
system is unavailable for:
~9 hours every year
1.5 minutes every day
3.6 seconds every hour
Which is least disruptive?

Availability
Availability depends on both MTTF and MTTR
MTTF is a function of original design and
manufacturing quality, but MTTR can be
controlled by the user by:
Setting up on-site servicing and support
contracts
Holding key spares on-site or regionally
Planning maintenance to reduce failures
Availability
Very high availability is difficult to achieve
Repair times cannot be further reduced:
engineers travel time
restart (or re-boot) time
process clean-up time
Mean times to failure are statistics, not fact!
Long MTTF figures are difficult to verify
What is Resilience?
Resilience is the ability a system to withstand a
failure in any individual component of the system
It is achieved by a combination of:
high reliability
redundancy
In effect, redundancy is used to improve
availability
Redundancy
In a redundant system key elements are
duplicated so that, in the event of a single failure,
the system as a whole can still operate
Reliability - MTBF - is greatly increased
MTTR is potentially reduced to zero
Availability is potentially 100%
- if the redundancy is correctly chosen!
How redundancy improves reliability

Overall reliability is:
1 - { [1-R1(t)] x [1 - R2(t)] }
If R1 and R2 are 0.90, the overall reliability is 0.99

- equivalent to increasing the MTBF by a factor of 10
Reliability R1(t)
Reliability R2(t)
System reliability
System reliability can be calculated from the
known reliabilities of the individual components
If the failure of any component causes the
system to fail, then, as far as reliability is
concerned, the components are in series
otherwise they are in parallel
System reliability
For example, if these two switches must be
closed for a process to operate, they are in series
as far as reliability of the process is concerned
- but if either must be open to ensure safety,

then they are in parallel as far as safety is
concerned
Types of Redundancy
In many cases, such as communications links or
ventilation units, it is not necessary to provide
100% redundancy
For example, installing three links each with
50% capacity provides high reliability for full
traffic capacity and very high reliability for lower
demand periods where one link would be
sufficient
Types of Redundancy
In this example, each component is capable of
supporting 100% of the demand
Types of Redundancy
In this example, each component is capable of
supporting only 50% of the demand
Any two units must be functional at any time
Objectives
Identify and remove all single points of failure
Balance reliability throughout the system - the
system can be no more reliable than the least
reliable link
Prefer active redundancy
Verify that the stand-by systems can be switched in
as required
Case study industrial glass plant

Power supply
20 kV
1 250 kVA
Transformers
Coupling
system
45 % Load
45 % load
Coupling
system
End
Use
End
Use
(Lot of power electronic with high

harmonics level)
Case study industrial glass plant

Power supply
20 kV
Coupling
system
First Event : Breakdown of one
transformer due to over-voltage
90 %
Load
Supply of all end used by one

transformer
Second Event: Breakdown of the
second transformer; overheating due to harmonics
End
Use
End
Use
(Lot of power electronic with high
harmonics level)
Case study - Industrial glass plant
Curative solution
Replace 1 250 kVA transformers by 1600 kVA
transformers.
Cost :
Cost of 2 transformers
Cost of emergency leasing of transformers
Cost of 3 days of no production
Total cost :
600 k EURO
Case study - Industrial glass plant
Preventive solution
Use 1 600 kVA transformers instead of 1 250 kVA
(at initial construction)
Extra cost of 1 600 kVA compared to 1 250 KVA
10 k EURO
Extra cost for two 1 600 kVA transformers
< 20 k EURO
<
An Introduction to Power Quality

David Chapman, CDA

Power Quality in Low Voltage

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Power Quality in Low Voltage

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Power Quality in Low Voltage

Introduction to power Quality

Power Quality Measurement

Power Quality Improvement Techniques

Earthing Issues in Power Quality

An Introduction to Power Quality

Copper Development Association

What is Power Quality ?

Power Quality Issues

The epitome of Just in Time - but without a

Power Quality Issues

Copper Development Association

Power Quality Issues

Copper Development Association

Power Quality Issues

Power Quality Issues

Power Quality Issues

Power Quality Issues

Copper Development Association

Power Quality Issues

Copper Development Association

Voltage stability - tolerance

Voltage stability - Unbalance

Unbalanced load currents

Voltage stability - Unbalance

Copper Development Association

Voltage stability - Unbalance

Copper Development Association

Voltage stability - Unbalance

Voltage stability - Unbalance

Voltage stability - Unbalance

Electronic power converters

Voltage stability - Unbalance

Transpose lines on long routes

Keep impedance low

Connect at highest possible voltage level

Connect heavy single phase loads via special transformers

Voltage stability - Dips

Voltage stability - dips

The majority of voltage dips have a duration less than 1

Voltage stability - interruptions

be less than one second

Copper Development Association

Voltage stability - interruptions

This does not include interruptions announced in

Copper Development Association

Voltage disturbance statistics

Source: Dorr, US Canada 1992 - 1994

Voltage stability - Dips

Copper Development Association

Voltage stability - Dips

Copper Development Association

Voltage stability - Dips

Copper Development Association

Copper Development Association

Copper Development Association

Copper Development Association

Network faults - auto-reclosers

Copper Development Association

Network faults - auto-reclosers

Copper Development Association

Network faults - auto-reclosers

Copper Development Association

Voltage stability - Dips