Introduction to Radiowave

Propagation
Dr Costas Constantinou
School of Electronic, Electrical & Computer Engineering
University of Birmingham
W: www.eee.bham.ac.uk/ConstantinouCC/
E: c.constantinou@bham.ac.uk

Introduction
For an overview, see Chapters 1 4 of L.W.
Barclay (Ed.), Propagation of Radiowaves,
2nd Ed., London: The IEE, 2003
The main textbook supporting these
lectures is: R.E. Collin, Antennas and
Radiowave Propagation, New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1985

Introduction (cont.)
Simple free-space propagation occurs only
rarely
For most radio links we need to study the
influence of the presence of the earth,
buildings, vegetation, the atmosphere,
hydrometeors and the ionosphere
In this lectures we will concentrate on
simple terrestrial propagation models only

Radio Spectrum
Symb Frequency
ol
range

Wavelengt Comments
h,

ELF

< 300 Hz

> 1000 km

ULF

300 Hz 3
kHz

1000 100
km

VLF

3 kHz 30
kHz

100 10
km

LF

30 300 kHz

10 1 km

MF

300 kHz 3
MHz

1 km 100
m

HF

3 30 MHz

100 10 m

VHF

30 300 MHz

10 1 m

UHF

300 MHz 3
GHz

SHF

3 30 GHz

Earth-ionosphere waveguide
propagation

Ground wave propagation

Ionospheric sky-wave
propagation

Space waves, scattering by

objects
similarly
sized to, or
1
c 1 m
f 100
;
c bigger
3 10
8 msthan,
a free-space
mm
wavelength, increasingly
100 10
affected by tropospheric

Electromagnetic waves
Spherical waves

1
S 2 E H

Intensity (time-average)
Wm
Conservation of energy; the inverse
square law
2

Electromagnetic waves
Conservation of energy; the inverse
square law
Energy cannot flow perpendicularly to, but
along light
flows
rays

r2 A1 r12
2 PA1 r1 A1 r2 A2 PA2

r1 A2 r2
1

1
r 2 E r
r
r
Ptransmitted in an angularsector of l steradians
r
lr2
Ptransmitted
r
4 r 2

Sphere vs Steradian
The surface area of a sphere is 4r2,
The surface area of a steradian is just r2.

A Radian "cuts out" a length of a circle's

circumference equal to the radius

A Steradian "cuts out" an area of a sphere

equal to (radius)2.

Free-space propagation
Tx
R
Ptx
Transmitted power
EIRP (equivalent isotropically radiatedGtx Ptx
power)
Gtx Ptx
Power density atS receiver

rx

4 R 2

Gtx Ptx rx
Received power
Prx
Ae ;
2
4 R

Aerx Grx
4

2
Friis power transmission
formula

Prx

Ptx

GtxGrx

4 R

Rx

Free-space propagation
(cont.)
Taking logarithms gives

4 R
10 log 10 Prx 10 log 10 Ptx 10 log 10 Gtx 10 log 10 Grx 20 log 10

Prx dBW Ptx dBW Gtx dBi Grx dBi L0 dB

whereL is the free-space path loss, measured in

0
decibels

4 R
L0 20 log 10
dB

L0 dB 32.4 20 log 10 f MHz 20 log 10 d km

Maths reminder

log a b c log a b,
c

log c b
log a b
, log a b c log a b log a c
log c a

Basic calculations
Example: Two vertical dipoles, each with gain
2dBi, separated in free space by 100m, the
transmitting one radiating a power of 10mW at
2.4GHz
L0 dB 32.4 20 log 10 2400 20 log 10 0.1 80.0

Prx dBW 10 log 10 10 2 10 log 10 2 10 log 10 2 80.0 94.0

This corresponds to 0.4nW (or an electric field

strength of 0.12mVm-1)
The important quantity though is the signal to
noise ratio at the receiver. In most instances
N k BTB
antenna
by electronic
k B noise
1.38 10is23dominated
JK 1
equipment thermal noise, given by
where
is Boltzmans constant, B is the

Basic calculations (cont.)

The noise power output by a receiver with a Noise
Figure F = 10dB, and bandwidth B = 200kHz at
room temperature (T = 300K) is calculated as
follows
N dBW 10 log 10 k BTB 10 log 10 F

N dBW 10 log 10 1.38 10 23 300 200 103 10 log 10 10

N 140.8 dBW 110.8 dBm

Thus the signal to noise ratio (SNR) is given by

SNR dB P dBW N dBW 94.0 140.8
SNR 46.8 dB

Basic calculations (cont.)

Propagation over a flat

earth
The two ray model (homogeneous ground)
z

Tx
r1

ht

Rx

r2

hr

air, 0, 0
ground, r, 0,

Valid in the VHF, band and above (i.e. f 30MHz where

ground/surface wave effects are negligible)
Valid for flat ground (i.e. r.m.s. roughness z < , typically
f 30GHz)

Propagation over flat earth

The path difference between the direct and
r r2 r1 paths is
ground-reflected
and this
k r2 r1 to a phase difference
corresponds
The total electric field at the receiver is given by

E r , E1 r , E 2 r ,

exp j t r1 c
E r , 60 Prad
e gT , e gT ,
r1

exp j t r2 c
60 Prad
e gT , e gT , .
r2
The angles and are the elevation and azimuth
angles of the direct and ground reflected paths
measured from the boresight of the transmitting
antenna radiation pattern

Reflection of plane waves

Reflection coefficient is a tensor
r
i
E .E

The reflection coefficient can be

resolved into two canonical
polarisations, TE and TM and has
exp
j
both
a magnitude
and phase
TE
TM

cos
cos

r j
||

r j

r j 0 sin 2
r j 0 sin 2
0 cos r j
0 cos r j

0 sin 2

0 sin 2

Plane of
incidence

Reflection of plane waves

Pseudo-Brewster angle

16

Mobihoc '03 Radio Channel

Modelling Tutorial

Typical reflection
coefficients for
ground as a
function of the
grazing angle
(complement of
the angle of
incidence). In
this instance,
r 15, 10 2 Sm 1

Propagation over flat earth

This expression can be simplified considerably for
vertical and horizontal polarisations for large
2kht hr
ranges d >> ht, hr, 2 ,
2
2
2

k r2 r1 k d ht hr d ht hr

d
1
1
1
1
1
1

2
2
2
2
r1
d
r2
d
d h h
d h h
t

e z Gtx cos for v. polarisati on

e gT , e gT ,
for h. polarisati on
e y Gtx

e z TM Gtx cos for v. pol.

. e gT , e gT ,
for h. pol.
e y TE Gtx

TM v TE h 1

Propagation over flat earth

Ev ,h E0 1 v ,h exp j
2

Prx Prx0 1 exp j 4 Prx0 sin 2 2

2ht hr
Prx 4 Prx0 sin

d
There are two sets of ranges to consider,
separated by a breakpoint
4ht hr

d
d b & sin

2
2

2
2

2

d d b & 4sin
2
2
2
2
2

Propagation over flat earth

Thus there are two simple propagation path loss
laws
L dB L0 3.0 l for d d c
where l is a rapidly varying (fading) term over
distances
of the
a wavelength,
L dB
L0 scale
20 logof
for d d c and
10
4d
4ht hr
This simplifies
to
L dB 20 log 10
20 log 10

d
L dB 40 log 10 d 20 log 10 ht 20 log 10 hr

The total path loss (free space loss + excess path

loss) is independent of frequency and shows that
height increases the received signal power (antenna
height gain) and that the received power falls as d-4
not d-2

Propagation over flat earth

Typical ground
(earth), with
r = 15
= 0.005Sm-1
ht = 20m and
hr = 2m

1/d4 power law regime (d > dc)

1/d2 power law regime (d < dc)

deep fade

Propagation over flat earth

2ht hr
When ht = 0 or hr = 0 Prx 4 Prx0 sin
d

This implies that no communication is possible for

ground based antennas (not quite true in
practice)
TM v 1ground and
Furthermore, for perfectly conducting
vertical polarisation at grazing incidence,
2 2ht hr
Prx 4 Prx0 cos

Propagation over flat earth

Problem: A boat has an elevated antenna
mounted on a mast at height ht above a highly
conducting perfectly flat sea. If the radiation
e cos that of a
pattern of the antenna approximates
vertically polarised current element, i.e.
,
determine the in-situ radiation pattern of the
antenna and in particular the radiation pattern
nulls as a function of the elevation angle above
2ht

the horizon.
f e cos cos
tan

Answer: 2n 1

, n 0,1,2,
4 ht

Path clearance on LOS paths

Tx

r01

r02

r0
ht

hc

r1

r11

Rx
r22
hr

h
P
d2

d1
d

Assume that in the worst case scenario we get

the strongest possible scattering from the subpath obstacle: specular reflection at grazing
incidence

Path clearance on LOS paths

The electrical path difference between the direct
and scattered rays from the top of the obstacle is,
k k r1 r0 k r11 r12 r01 r02
k

r012 hc2 r01

r01 , r02 hc

r022 hc2 r02

Since typically

hc2
hc2
k k r01
r01 r02
r02
2r01
2r02

khc2 1
1 khc2 1 1

2 r01 r02
2 d1 d 2
khc2 d

2d1d 2

Path clearance on LOS paths

Additionally, comparing similar parallelograms
gives,
hr d1 ht d 2

hc

h cos

Under the assumptions made, the direct and

scattered waves have similar magnitudes and
differ in phase by due to the grazing incidence
reflection
d1d 2
If the electrical pathhc difference
is this

d
corresponds to a first Fresnel
zone path clearance

Site shielding
We consider the two-dimensional problem of site
shielding by an obstacle in the line-of-sight path
for simplicity (rigorous diffraction theory is
beyond the scope of these introductory lectures)
We invoke the Huygens-Fresnel principle to
describe wave propagation:
Every point on a primary wavefront serves as the source
of spherical secondary wavelets such that the primary
wavefront at some later time is the envelope of these
wavelets. Moreover, the wavelets advance with a speed
andfrequency equal to that of the primary wave at each
point in space. Huygens's principle was slightly modified
by Fresnel to explain why no back wave was formed,
and Kirchhoff demonstrated that the principle could be
derived from the wave equation

Site shielding

Site shielding
P

r = d2 +

du
u

d1
O
T

d2
u0 (u0 > 0 path obstraction)
(u0 < 0 path clearance)

d1
d1

perfectly
absorbing
knife-edge

observation
plane

Site sheilding
The Kirchhoff integral describing the summing of
secondary wavefronts in the Huygens-Fresnel
principle yields the field
at the receiver
u
exp jkr
E R k1
du
f r
u
1

where k1 describes the transmitter power,

polarisation and radiation pattern, f(r) describes
the amplitude spreading factor for the secondary
waves (2D cylindrical wave f(r) = r1/2, 3D spherical
wave f(r) = r) and u1 is a large positive value of u to
describe a distant upper bound on the wavefront

Site shielding
Stationary phase arguments (since the exponent
is oscillatory, especially for high frequencies)
show that only the fields in the vicinity of the
point O contribute significantly to the field at R
If point O is obstructed by the knife-edge, then
only the fields in the vicinity of the tip of the
knife-edge contribute significantly to the field at R
Using the cosine rule on the triangle TPR, gives
r 2 PR TP TR 2 TP TR cos
2

d2

d1 d 2 d1
2

u
2 d1 d 2 d1 cos
d1

Site shielding
If we assume that d1, d2 >> , u (stationary phase
and far-field approximations), then u/d1, << 1 and
2

2 2
u
2
2
2
2
d <<

2 d ; 2 d d 2d d 2 d d d 1
2

; u2

1 2

1 2

2
1

2d

d1 d 2
2d1d 2

Thus, using stationary phase arguments, we may

only keep the fast varying exponential term inside
the Kirchhoff integral and evaluate the slowly
u
k
exp

jkd

varying f(r) term1 at the stationary

phase point O,
2
E R ;
exp

jk

u du

to give,
f d2
u
1

Site shielding
d1 d 2 2
u
, we make the
d1d 2
substitution
2 d1 d 2
2
d
u
@k2u k
& du
d1d 2
2
k2

Sincek u ;

which simplifies
the
integral
to the2 form,
k1 exp
jkd

2
E R ;
exp j 2 d

k2 f d 2
0

where we have used the stationary phase

argument to make the upper limit
Using the definitionx of the complex
Fresnel
2
F x exp j 2 d
integral,
0

Site shielding
k1 exp jkd 2
k3 @
k2 f d 2
E R ; k3 F F 0
1 j

E R ; k3
F 0
2

To determine k3 we let and use F()=

F() and the fact that in this case we have freespace propagation (i.e. E(R) = E0(R)) , to get,
E0 R ; k3 1 j

E0 R E0 R
k3

1 j
1 j
2

Site shielding

E0 R
Therefore,E R ;
1 j exp j 2 2 d
2
0

where,
0 u0

2 d1 d 2
d1d 2

The path-gain factor, F, is given by,

E R
1
F@

E0 R
2

2
exp

2 d

Useful engineering approximations:

20 log10 F ; 13 20 log10 0

0 2.4

20 log10 F ; 6.02 9.11 0 1.27v02

0 0 2.4

20 log10 F ; 6.02 9.0 0 1.65v02

0.8 0 0

Site shielding

Multipath propagation
Mobile radio channels are predominantly
in the VHF and UHF bands
VHF band (30 MHz f 300 MHz, or 1 m
10 m)
UHF band (300 MHz f 3 GHz, or 10 cm
1 m)

In an outdoor environment
electromagnetic signals can travel from
the transmitter to the receiver along many
paths
Reflection
Diffraction

Multipath propagation
Narrowband
signal
(continuous
wave CW)
Area mean or path
loss envelope
(deterministic or
empirical)

Fast or multipath
fading (statistical)

Local mean, or shadowing, or slow

fading (deterministic or statistical)

Multipath propagation
The total signal
consists of many
components
Each component
corresponds to a
signal which has a
variable amplitude
and phase
The power received
varies rapidly as the
Averaging the phase angles results in the
component phasors
localwith
mean
signal over areas of the order of
add
rapidly
102
changing
phases
Averaging the length (i.e. power) over many
locations/obstructions results in the area
mean

The signals at the receiver can be

expressed in terms of delay, and

Area mean models

We will only cover the Hata-Okumura
model, which derives from extensive
measurements made by Okumura in 1968
in and around Tokyo between 200 MHz and
2 GHz
The measurements were approximated in
a set of simple median path loss formulae
by Hata
The model has been standardised by the
ITU as recommendation ITU-R P.529-2

Area mean models

The model applies to three clutter and
terrain categories
Urban area: built-up city or large town with
large buildings and houses with two or more
storeys, or larger villages with closely built
houses and tall, thickly grown trees
Suburban area: village or highway scattered
with trees and houses, some obstacles being
near the mobile, but not very congested
Open area: open space, no tall trees or
buildings in path, plot of land cleared for 300
400 m ahead, e.g. farmland, rice fields, open
fields

Area mean models

urban areas :

L dB A B log R E

suburban areas : L dB A B log R C

open areas :
L dB A B log R D

where
A 69.55 26.16 log f c 13.82 log hb
B 44.9 6.55 log hb
C 2 log f c 28 5.4
2

D 4.78 log f c 18.33 log f c 40.94

2

E 3.2 log 11.75hm 4.97 for large cities, f c 300MHz

2

E 8.29 log 1.54hm 1.1

2

for large cities, f c 300MHz

E 1.1 log f c 0.7 hm 1.56 log f c 0.8 for medium to small cities

Area mean models

The Hata-Okumura model is only valid for:
Carrier frequencies: 150 MHz fc 1500 MHz
Base station/transmitter heights: 30 m hb 200
m
Mobile station/receiver heights: 1 m hm 10 m
Communication range: R > 1 km
A large city is defined as having an average
building height in excess of 15 m

Local mean model

The departure of the local mean power from the
area mean prediction, or equivalently the
deviation of the area mean model is described by
a log-normal distribution
In the same manner that the theorem of large
numbers states that the probability density
function of the sum of many random processes
obeys a normal distribution, the product of a large
number of random processes obeys a log-normal
distribution
Here the product characterises the many
cascaded interactions of electromagnetic waves
in reaching the receiver
The theoretical basis for this model is
questionable over short-ranges, but it is the best

Local mean model

Working in logarithmic units (decibels, dB), the
total path loss is given by
PL d L d X
where X is a random variable obeying a
lognormal distribution with standard deviation
1
(again measured
in
dB)
2

p X
exp X 2 2 dB
dB 2

If x is measured in linear
units
Volts)
ln(e.g.

x ln m
1
x
p x
exp

2
2

dB x 2
dB

where mx is the mean value of the signal given

Local mean model

Cumulative probability density function
LT L d
1
2
cdf PL LThreshold
exp X 2 2 dB
dX
dB 2

1
LT L d
1 erfc

2
2

This can be used to calculate the probability that

the signal-to-noise ratio will never be lower than a
desired threshold value. This is called an outage
calculation
Typical values of dB = 10 dB are encountered in
urban outdoor environments, with a decorrelation distance between 20 80 m with a
median value of 40 m

Fast fading models

Im
Constructive and destructive
interference
In spatial domain
In frequency domain
In time domain (scatterers, tx
and rx in relative motion)

Re
P

Azimuth dependent Doppler

shifts

Each multipath component

travels corresponds to a
different path length.
Plot of power carried by each
component against delay is
called the power delay profile
(PDP )of the channel.
2nd central moment of PDP is
called the delay spread

Fast fading models

The relation of the radio system channel
bandwidth Bch to the delay spread is very
important
1
B

Narrowband channel (flatch fading, negligible intersymbol interference (ISI), diversity antennas useful)
Wideband channel (frequency
selective fading, need
1
B

ch
equalisation (RAKE receiver)
or spread spectrum
techniques (W-CDMA, OFDM, etc.) to avoid/limit ISI)

Fast fading refers to very rapid variations in signal

strength (20 to in excess of 50 dB in magnitude)
typically in an analogue narrowband channel
Dominant LOS component Rician fading
NLOS components of similar magnitude Rayleigh
fading

Fast fading models

Working in logarithmic units (decibels, dB), the
total path loss is given by
PL d L d X 20 log 10 Y
where Y is random variable which describes the
fast fading and it obeys the distribution
Y

Y2
2 exp 2 , Y 0

pY
2
0,
Y 0

for Rayleigh fading, where the mean value of Y is

Y 2 1 0.80

Fast fading models

For Rician fading
Y
Y 2 y s2 Yy s
I 0 2 , Y 0
2 exp
2
p Y
2

0,
Y 0

where ys is the amplitude of the dominant (LOS)

2
2
2
y
2
K

y
2

components with power Rice

.s The ratio
is called the Rician K-factor. The mean
value of Y is
Y 2 1 K I 0 K 2 K I1 K 2 exp K 2
The Rician K-factor can vary considerably across
small areas in indoor environments

Fading models
Similar but much more complicated outage
calculations
E.g. Rayleigh and log-normal distributions combine to
give a Suzuki distribution

The spatial distribution of fades is such that the

length of a fade depends on the number of dB
below the local
mean signal we are concerned
Fade depth (dB) Average fade length ()
with
0

0.479

-10

0.108

-20

0.033

-30

0.010

Tropospheric propagation
Over long-distances, more than a few tens
of km, and heights of up to 10 km above
the earths surface, clear air effects in the
troposphere become non-negligible
The dielectric constant of the air at the
earths surface of (approx.) 1.0003 falls to
1.0000 at great heights where the density
of the air tends to zero
A consequence of Snells law of refraction
is that radiowaves follow curved, rather
than straight-line trajectories

Tropospheric propagation
The variation of the ray
curvature with refractive
index is derived:

B
B

A
d

AA: wavefront at time t

BB: wavefront at time t + dt
AB and AB: rays normal to
the wavefronts
: radius of curvature of AB
c dt
AB d v dt
n

c dt
AB d d v dv dt
n dn
d
c
c

dt n n dn d

n + dn

dh

Tropospheric propagation
n n nd dn dnd

Retaining only terms which are correct to first

order in small quantities,
dn nd
1
1 dn

n d
But this is the curvature, C, of the ray AB, by
definition. Furthermore,
dh d cos
1
1 dn
C@
cos

n dh

For rays propagating along the earths surface

is very small and we may take cos = 1. Moreover,
n1 1.

Tropospheric propagation
dn
C;
dh

If n = constant, dn/dh = 0 C = 0 and the ray has zero

curvature, i.e. the ray path is a straight line
A ray propagating horizontally above the earth
must have a curvature C = (earths radius)1 = a1 in
order to remain parallel with the earths surface.
But its actual curvature is given by C and not C.
The difference between the two curvatures gives
the curvature of an equivalent earth for which
dn/dh = 0 and which has an effective radius ae,
1 1 dn
1

@
ae a dh ka

Tropospheric propagation
k is known as the k-factor for the earth
Typically, dn/dh 0.039106 m1 1/(25,600 km)
Therefore,1
1
1
1
ae

6, 400 km

25, 600 km

k 6, 400 km

The k-factor of the earth is k = 4/3

The effective radius of the earth is ae = 4a/3
These values are used in the standard earth
model which explains why the radio horizon is
bigger than the radio horizon

Tropospheric propagation
Problem: Find the radio horizon of an elevated
antenna at a height ht above the earth
R 2ae ht
Answer: