ADVANCED

STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS :: BEAMS,
SLABS, ARCHES, DOMES, VAULTS,
TRUSSES, PORTAL FRAMES, SPACE
FRAMES

B . A RC H 7 T H S E M S E C
A
S PA J N A FA U

A N M O L KO L L E G A L
( 1101002 )
O. S H A N M U K H
( 1101030 )
S AT YA
( 1101026 )
S O U RA B H R E D DY
( 1101035 )

BEAMS
Abeamisastructuralelementthatiscapableofwithstandingloadprimarilybyresistingbending.The
bendingforceinducedintothematerialofthebeamasaresultoftheexternalloads,ownweightand
externalreactionstotheseloadsiscalledabendingmoment.
Internally,beamsexperiencecompressive,tensileandshearstressesasaresultoftheloadsappliedto
them
Abovethesupports,thebeamisexposedtoshearstress.Therearesomereinforcedconcretebeamsthat
areentirelyincompression.Thesebeamsareknownasprestressedconcretebeams,andarefabricatedto
produceacompressionmorethantheexpectedtensionunderloadingconditions

SLABS

Aconcrete slabis a common structural element of modern buildings. Horizontal slabs of steel
reinforced concrete, typically between 10 and 50 centimeters thick, are most often used to construct
floors and ceilings, while thinner slabs are also used for exterior paving.
In many domestic and industrial buildings a thick concrete slab, supported onfoundationsor directly
on the sub soil, is used to construct the ground floor of a building. In high rises buildings and
skyscrapers, thinner, pre-cast concrete slabs are slung between thesteelframes to form the floors
and ceilings on each level.
For a suspended slab, there are a number of designs to improve the strength-to-weight ratio. In all
cases the top surface remains flat, and the underside is modulated:
Corrugated, usually where the concrete is poured into a corrugated steel tray. This improves strength
and prevents the slab bending under its own weight. The corrugations run across the short dimension,
from side to side.
Aribbed slab, giving considerable extra strength on one direction.
Awaffle slab, giving added strength in both directions.
Reinforcement design
Aone way slabhas structural strength in shortest direction.
Atwo way slabhas structural strength in two directions

ARCHES
The arch may be said to have originated with the idea of placing a considerable number of blocks in a
concentric arrangement. The wedge-shaped blocks, called voussoirs,hold each other firmly in place
and prevent each other from slipping. The voussoirs at the top, orcrown, of the arch convert the
downward pressure into lateral (sideways) pressure, orthrust, which is transmitted from the upper
voussoirs down around the opening and finally into the ground through the wall orpieron which the
arch rests. Not only can considerable distances be spanned in this way, but arches can carry a much
heavier load than a horizontal lintel.
The arch is, however, not without its peculiar weakness. The lateral thrust is strongest at
thehaunchesof the arch (the part midways between the crown and thespringing). Thekeystone, and
the other voussoirs at the crown, presses out against the voussoirs at the haunches, which may
buckle and allow the crown to fall if they are not properly buttressed. The lateral thrust at the
haunches can be counteracted by the thrust of arches placed to either side, as in anarcade, but,
unless the arcade is circular, the lateral thrust of the arches at the end must finally be counteracted
by the sheer mass of an abutment.

ARCHES
Types ofarches:
Arches are constructed in four basic shapes
that frame and support doors, windows,
porches, and other wall openings:
Flat arch
Triangular arch
Round arch
Pointed arch

Triangular arch:
It is a primitive form of arch consisting of two
stones laid diagonally to support each other
over an opening. Hence, the span is limited by
the size of the available material.

Flat arch:
An arch having a horizontal intrados with
voussoirs radiating froma centre below,
oftenbuilt witha slightcamber to allow
settling is called a flat or jack arch.
French arch:
A flat arch withvoussoirs
inclined tothe same angle at
each side of the centre. The
mortar
joints
do
not,
therefore,
radiate
to
a
common
centre.
Not,
technically, a proper arch,
and of weak form.

VAULTS
Avaultis a ceiling of brick, stone, or concrete built in the principle of the arch. Atunnel vault,
orbarrel vault, is a tunnel-like, semi-cylindrical extension of an arch, which may be thought of
as an unbroken series of arches pressed together, one behind the other. It cannot be lighted
except at the ends without being structurally weakened, because, as in an arch, continuous
abutment must be applied to absorb the thrust carried down along the haunches to the walls
supporting it. However, arches may be introduced in the supporting walls and transverse ribs
may be inserted in the vault to concentrate thrust at a few strongly buttressed points, thereby
permitting a reduction of weight and thrust in the segments of vaulting between the ribs.
If a barrel vault is intersected at right angles by another barrel vault of the same size, across
vault, orgroin vault, is formed. This is a very efficient form of vaulting allowing full illumination
from the sides. Groin vaults also allow a great saving in material and labour over the simple
barrel vault; thrust is concentrated along the groins (the four diagonal edges formed along the
points where the barrel vaults intersect), so the vault need only be abutted at its four corners.

VAULTS

Types of vaults:
Barrel Vault: A barrel vault is the simplest of the vaults and is the base design for many vaults
that have a more intricate design. It consists of an on-going series of semi-circular arches. One
is directly behind another, causing it to look like a half of a barrel. In some instances, it is
described as resembling a tunnel.

Groin Vault: A groin vault is created by two barrel vaults intersecting at right angles. The
arches of groin vaults are round or pointed. It is also known as a cross vault.

Rib Vault: A vault reinforced by masonry ribs is known as a rib vault. When this type of vault
has two masonry ribs dividing it into four sections, it is called a quadripartite rib vault. A vault
divided by three masonry ribs that make six sections is called a sexpartite rib vault.

DOMES
Domes are curved architectonic structures with no angles or corners, similar to the
upper half of a sphere. Despite their apparent fragility, domes are strong structures
and have been used in buildings since ancient times, according to PBS Online. In
Europe, the earliest domes were made of stone. The Roman Pantheon, built almost
2,000 years ago, is a good example of early dome engineering. Indigenous peoples
in Ethiopia and other places have used curved bows to create their huts, creating a
primitive yet effective dome.

DOMES
Geodesic Dome:
The geodesic dome was invented in the
1950s by American engineer and architect
Buckminster Fuller, according to PBS Online.
This type of dome is structured on triangles
and other geometric shapes instead of the
arches. The Epcot Centre in Orlando, the
Caspary Auditorium in New York and the
Eden Project in England are examples of
geodesic domes.

Monolithic Dome:
The monolithic dome is made of one solid piece of
material. Its construction begins with a circular
concrete foundation, where a canvas "air form" is
attached to the slab. The canvas is then inflated using
special fans, thus forming the shape of the dome. After
that, the interior is covered with a layer of
polyurethane foam insulation . A steel bar is enclosed
in the foam to give support to the dome. Finally, a
special mix of concrete is spread over the interior of
the building, reports the Architecture Week website.

DOMES
Bow Dome:
The bow dome is made of wood bows, which can be substituted by aluminium, and
canvas. This type of dome is rather archaic, yet efficient. It represents the first habitation
built by humans, according to website Simply Different. There are different types of bow
domes, which depend on how the bow is placed. Half sphere or unibow is the most
common, but has some disadvantages, which include the almost horizontal roof angle at
the top, not ideal under snow, for instance. Cross-tie, peak-tie and bell are other types of
bow dome, more appropriate for regions with lots of rainfall or snow.

TRUSS
Atrussis astructurecomprising one or more triangular units constructed with straight
members whose ends are connected at joints referred to asnodes. External forces and
reactions to those forces are considered to act only at the nodes and result in forces in the
members which are eithertensileorcompressiveforces. Moments (torsional forces) are
explicitly excluded because, and only because, all the joints in a truss are treated asrevolutes.
A planar truss is one where all the members and nodes lie within a two dimensional plane,
while a space truss has members and nodes extending into three dimensions.
Characteristics of trusses
A truss is composed of triangles because of the structural stability of that shape and design. A
triangle is the simplest geometric figure that will not change shape when the lengths of the
sides are fixed.In comparison, both the angles and the lengths of a four-sided figure must be
fixed for it to retain its shape.

TRUSS
There are two basic types of truss:
Thepitched truss, orcommon truss, is characterized by its triangular shape. It is most often
used for roof construction. Some common trusses are named according to theirweb
configuration. The chord size and web configuration are determined byspan,loadandspacing.
Theparallel chord truss, orflat truss, gets its name from its parallel top and bottom chords. It is
often used for floor construction.
A combination of the two is a truncated truss, used inhiproof construction. A metal plateconnected wood truss is a roof or floor truss whose wood members are connected withmetal
connector plates.

PORTAL FRAME
Portal frames are single storey, single( or multi-bay) frames with pitched or flat roof.
Fabricated from universal beams, it is an ideal structural solution in many
circumstances, regarding its economic and structural efficiency. The system is
specially ideal for industrial buildings due to its ability to span large areas of
unobstructed open space within its building envelope. This is made possible through
the design and use of refabricated steel sections. Technological advance in the
footing system also cooperate for the large span achieved due to their ability to carry
greater loads (or its efficiency to transfer and distribute the loads to the foundation).

PORTAL FRAME
Three major elements are;
cladding for both roof and walls;
secondary steel to support the cladding and form framing for doors, windows and
the like;
and the main framework of the structure, including all necessary bracing.
In addition, the building requires appropriate footings designed to transmit all the load
to the foundations( supporting soil).

SPACE FRAMES
A space frame is a truss-like, lightweight rigid structure constructed from interlocking struts in a
geometric pattern.
Space frames usually utilize a multidirectional span, and are often used to accomplish long spans
with few supports.
They derive their strength from the inherent rigidity of the triangular frame; flexing loads (bending
moments) are transmitted as tension and compression loads along the length of each strut.
Space frames are an increasingly common architectural technique especially for large roof spans
in modernist commercial and industrial buildings.

Some Space Frame Applications include:

Hotel/Hospital/commercial building entrances
Commercial building lobbies/atriums
Parking canopies

SPACE FRAMES
Advantages of space frame systems over conventional systems:
Random column placement
Column-free spaces
Minimal perimeter support
Controlled load distribution
Design freedom
Supports all types of roofing