OPTICAL

PROPERTIES
GROUP 7

INTRODUCTION
By optical property is meant a materials response to exposure
to electromagnetic radiation and, in particular, to visible light. This
discusses some of the basic principles and concepts relating to the
nature of electromagnetic radiation and its possible interactions
with solid materials. Next to be explored are the optical behaviors
of metallic and nonmetallic materials in terms of their absorption,
reflection, and transmission characteristics. The final sections
outline luminescence, photoconductivity, and light amplification
by stimulated emission of radiation (laser), the practical utilization
of these phenomena, and optical fibers in communications.

BASIC CONCEPTS

Electromagnetic Radiation
Light Interactions with Solids
The optical behavior of a solid material is a function of its
interactions with electromagnetic radiation having
wavelengths within the visible region of the spectrum.
Possible interactive phenomena include refraction,
reflection, absorption, and transmission of incident light.

VISIBLE SPECTRUM WAVELENGTH

This velocity, c, is related to the electric permittivity of a

vacuum o and the magnetic permeability of a vacuum o
through
c = 1/ ( o o )
Thus, there is an association between the electromagnetic
constant c and these electrical and magnetic constants.
Furthermore, the frequency and the wavelength of the
electromagnetic radiation are a function of velocity.
c=
Frequency is expressed in terms of hertz (Hz), and 1 Hz cycle
per second. Ranges of frequency for the various forms of
electromagnetic radiation are also included in the spectrum.

Let us view electromagnetic radiation from a quantummechanical perspective, in which the radiation, rather
than consisting of waves, is composed of groups or
packets of energy, which are called photons.
The energy E of a photon is said to be quantized, or can
only have specific values, defined by the relationship
E = hv = hc/
E energy of a photon
where:
wavelength of radiation
frequency of radiation
h Planck s constant (6.63 x 10 34 J s)
c speed of light in a vacuum (3.00 x 108 m/s)

Light Interactions with Solids

Incident light is reflected, absorbed, scattered, and/or
transmitted:

I0 IT I A I R IS

Reflected: IR

Absorbed: IA
Transmitted: IT

Incident: I0
Scattered: IS

When light proceeds from one medium into another (e.g., from air into a solid
substance), several things happen. Some of the light radiation may be transmitted
through the medium, some will be absorbed, and some will be reflected at the
interface between the two media. The intensity of the beam incident to the surface
of the solid medium must equal the sum of the intensities of the transmitted,
absorbed, and reflected beams, denoted as and respectively, or
I o = I T + IA + I R
Where:
I = the intensity (W/m2) of incident lights
subscripts = refers to transmitted, absorbed, reflected
Radiation intensity, expressed in watts per square meter, corresponds to the energy
being transmitted per unit of time across a unit area that is perpendicular to the
direction of propagation. An alternate form is,
T+A+R=1
Where:
T, A, and R = transmissivity (IT / Io), absorptivity (IA / Io), and
reflectivity (IR / Io), or are the fractions the amount of the
amount of incident light

 Optical classification of materials:

Transparent
Translucent
Opaque

single
crystal

polycrystalline dense

polycrystalline porous

Optical Properties of Metals

Optical Properties of Metals: Absorption

Absorption of photons by electron transitions:

Energy of electron
unfilled states

n
o
t
ho
p
nt

e
h
d
i
y
g
Inc
r
ne
e
of
Plancks constant
(6.63 x 10-34 J/s)

freq.
of
incident
light

E = h required!

filled states

Reflection of Light for Metals

Electron transition from an excited state produces a photon.

Energy of electron

IR
photon emitted from
metal surface

unfilled states
conducting electron
Electron transition
filled states

Reflection of Light for Metals (cont.)

Reflectivity = IR /I0 is between 0.90 and 0.95.
Metal surfaces appear shiny
Most of absorbed light is reflected at the same wavelength
Small fraction of light may be absorbed
Color of reflected light depends on wavelength distribution
Example: The metals copper and gold absorb light in blue and
green => reflected
light has gold color

Optical properties of
Nonmetals

Refraction in non-metals

One of the most important optical properties of nonmetallic materials is refraction

Refraction- is the bending of a wave when it enters a
medium where its speed is different. Therefractionof
light when it passes from a fast medium to a slow medium
bends the light ray toward the normal to the boundary
between the two media.
We define the index of refraction to be
n = c/v
where c is the speed of light in a vacuum and v is the speed of
light in the material (which is in general wavelengthdependent)

A familiar example is the prism where the different

REFRACTION
The index of refraction n of a material is defined as the ratio of the velocity
in a vacuum c to the velocity in the medium or
n=c/v

Equation A

The magnitude of n (or the degree of bending) will depend on the

wavelength of the light. Just as Equation A defines the magnitude of c, an
equivalent expression gives the velocity of light in a medium as
v = 1 / ()
where and are, respectively, the permittivity and permeability of the
particular substance. From Equation A, we have
n = c / v = () / ( o o ) = (T T)
where T and T are the dielectric constant and the relative magnetic
permeability, respectively. Since most substances are only slightly
magnetic, T 1, and
n (T)

Reflectivity of Nonmetals
For normal incidence and light passing into a solid having an index
of refraction n:

n 1 2
R reflectivity

n 1
Example: For Diamond n = 2.41

2.41 1
R

2.41 1

0.17

17% of light is reflected

Absorption
Nonmetallic materials are either intrinsically transparent
or opaque. Opacity results in relatively narrow-band gap
materials as a result of absorption whereby a photons
energy is sufficient to promote valence band-conduction
band electron transitions. Transparent nonmetals have
band gaps greater than about 3 eV. Some light
absorption occurs in even transparent materials as a
consequence of electronic polarization.

Selected Light Absorption in Semiconductors

Absorption of light of frequency by by electron transition occurs if h > Egap

Energy of electron
Examples of photon energies:
blue light: h = 3.1 eV
red light: h = 1.8 eV

unfilled states

Egap
incident photon
energy h

filled states

If Egap < 1.8 eV, all light absorbed; material is opaque (e.g., Si, GaAs)
If Egap > 3.1 eV, no light absorption; material is transparent and
colorless (e.g., diamond)
If 1.8 eV < Egap < 3.1 eV, partial light absorption; material is colored

Computations of Minimum Wavelength

Absorbed

(a) What is the minimum wavelength absorbed by

Ge, for which Eg = 0.67 eV?
Solution:

hc
(6.63 x 1034 J s)(3 x 108 m/s)
Ge (min)

E g (Ge)
(0.67 eV)(1.60 x 1019 J/eV)
Ge (min) 1.86 x 10 -6 m 1.86 m

(b)
Redoing this computation for Si which has a band gap
of 1.1 eV

Si (min) 1.13 m

Note: the presence of donor and/or acceptor states allows for light absorption at other
wavelengths.

Color
For wide-band gap insulators that contain impurities,
decay processes involving excited electrons to states
within the band gap are possible with the emission of
photons having energies less than the band gap energy.
These materials appear colored, and the color depends
on the distribution of wavelength ranges in the
transmitted beam.

Color of Nonmetals
Color determined by the distribution of wavelengths:

-- transmitted light
-- re-emitted light from electron transitions
Example 1: Cadmium Sulfide (CdS), Eg

= 2.4 eV
-- absorbs higher energy visible light (blue, violet)
-- color results from red/orange/yellow light that is transmitted
Ruby = Sapphire (Al2O3) + (0.5 to 2) at% Cr2O3
-- Sapphire is transparent and
80
sapphire
colorless (Eg > 3.1 eV)
70
-- adding Cr2O3 :
60
alters the band gap
blue and orange/yellow/green
light is absorbed
red light is transmitted
Result: Ruby is deep
red in color

Transmittance (%)

Example 2:

50

ruby

wavelength,

40
0.3

0.5

0.7

(= c/)(m)
0.9

Opacity and Translucency in

Insulators
Normally transparent materials may be made
translucent or even opaque if the incident light beam
experiences interior reflection and/or refraction.
Translucency and opacity as a result of internal
scattering may occur, (1) in polycrystalline materials
that have an anisotropic index of refraction, (2) in twophase materials, (3) in materials containing small pores,
and (4) in highly crystalline polymers.

Optical applications/devices:

Luminescence
Photoconductivity
Lasers
Three important optical phenomena: luminescence,
photoconductivity, and light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation (lasers). With luminescence,
energy is absorbed as a consequence of electron
excitations, which is reemitted as visible light. The
electrical conductivity of some semiconductors may be
enhanced by photo induced electron transitions,
whereby additional free electrons and holes are
generated. Coherent and high-intensity light beams are
produced in lasers by stimulated electron transitions.

Luminescence

Luminescence reemission of light by a material

Material absorbs light at one frequency and reemits it at another (lower)
frequency.
Trapped (donor/acceptor) states introduced by impurities/defects
If residence time in trapped state is relatively
long (> 10-8 s)
-- phosphorescence

Conduction band

Eg

trapped states

Eemission

activator
level
Valence band

For short residence times (< 10-8 s)

-- fluorescence
Example: Toys that glow in the dark. Charge
toys by exposing them to light. Reemission of
light over timephosphorescence

The LASER
The laser generates light waves that are in
phase (coherent) and that travel parallel to one
another
LASER

Light
Amplification by
Stimulated
Emission of
Radiation

Operation of laser involves a population

inversion of energy states process

Continuous Wave Lasers

Continuous wave (CW) lasers generate a continuous (rather

than pulsed) beam

Materials for CW lasers include semiconductors (e.g., GaAs),

gases (e.g., CO2), and yttrium-aluminum-garnet (YAG)

Wavelengths for laser beams are within visible and infrared

regions of the spectrum

Uses of CW lasers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Welding
Drilling
Cutting laser carved wood, eye surgery
Surface treatment
Scribing ceramics, etc.
Photolithography Excimer laser

Other Applications - Optical Fibers

Schematic diagram showing components of a fiber
optic communications system

Optical Fibers in Communications

This discusses the use of optical fibers in our modern
telecommunications. Using fiber-optic technology,
transmission of information is interference free, rapid,
and intense.

Optical Fibers (cont.)

fibers have diameters of 125 m or less
plastic cladding 60 m thick is applied to fibers

Optical Fiber Designs

Step-index Optical Fiber

Graded-index Optical Fiber

Optical fibers

PROCESSES