Primary Source: The Americans, McDougal Littell

Images as cited.

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Jefferson won reelection in 1804 but a crisis clouded his

second administration. Renewed fighting between
Britain and France threatened American shipping.

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The crisis continued into the administration of

James Madison, who was elected president in
1808.

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Four years later, Madison led the nation

into the War of 1812 against Great Britain.

Although France and Britain both threatened U.S.

ships between 1805 and 1814, Americans focused
their anger on the British.

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One reason was the British policy of impressment,

the practice of seizing Americans at sea and
impressing, or drafting them into the British navy.

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Americans grew even angrier after learning that officials in

British Canada were supplying arms to Native Americans in
support of their ongoing battle against American settlers.

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A group of young congressmen from the South

and the West, known as the warhawks, demanded
war.

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By the spring of 1812, President Madison had decided

to commit America to war against British, and
Congress approved the war declaration in mid-June.

examiner.com

Republican funding cuts and a lack of popular

support had left the American military with few
volunteers and ill-prepared for war.

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Britain, however, was too preoccupied with

Napoleon in Europe to pay much attention to the
Americans.

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Nonetheless, the British scored a stunning victory

in August of 1814, when they brushed aside
American troops and sacked Washington, D.C.

Madison and other federal officers fled the city as

the British burned the Capitol, the Presidential
Mansion, and other public buildings.

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The most impressive American victory

occurred at the Battle of New Orleans.

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Ironically, British and American diplomats had already

signed a peace agreement before the Battle of New Orleans,
but the news of the pact had not reached Jackson in time.

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The Treaty of Ghent, signed on Christmas Eve,

1814, declared an armistice, or end to the
fighting.

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The war had three important consequences. First,

it led to the end of the Federalist party, whose
members generally opposed the war.

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Second, it encouraged the growth of American

industries to manufacture products no longer
available from Britain because of the war.

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Third, it confirmed the status of the United

States as a free and independent nation.

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As with James Madison, foreign affairs dominated

the first term of President James Monroe, who
was elected in 1816.

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His secretary of state, John Quincy Adams, established a

foreign policy based on nationalism, a belief that national
interests should be placed ahead of regional concerns, such
as slavery in the South or tariffs in the Northeast.

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High on Adams list of national interests were

the security of the nation and the expansion of
its territory.

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Adams arranged the convention of 1818, which

fixed the U.S. border at the 49th parallel from
Michigan west to the Rocky Mountains.

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Adams also reached a compromise with Britain to

jointly occupy the Oregon Territory, the territory
west of the Rockies, for ten years.

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Adams also convinced Don Luis de Onis, the

Spanish minister to the United States, to
transfer Florida to the United States.

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The Adams-Onis Treaty also established a western boundary

for the U.S. that extended along the Sabine River from the
Gulf of Mexico north to the Arkansas River to its source, and
then north to the 42nd parallel, and west to the Pacific Ocean.

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When Napoleon invaded Portugal and Spain in 1807, the two

countries did not have the money or military force to both
defend themselves and keep control of their overseas territories
at the same time.

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But when Napoleon was defeated in 1815,

Portugal and Spain wanted to reclaim their
former colonies in Latin America.

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Meanwhile, the Russians, who had been in Alaska

since 1784, were establishing trading posts in
what is now California.

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In 1821, Czar Alexander I of Russian claimed that Alaskas

southern boundary was the 51st parallel, just north of Vancouver
Island. He forbade foreign vessels from using the coast north of
this line.

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Many Americans were interested in acquiring northern

Mexico and the Spanish colony of Cuba. Moreover, the
Russian action posed a threat to American trade with China,
which brought huge profits.

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Accordingly, in his 1823 message to Congress,

President Monroe warned all European powers not
to interfere with affairs in the Western Hemisphere.

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They should not attempt to create new colonies,

he said, or try to overthrow the newly
independent republics in the hemisphere.

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The U.S. would consider such action dangerous to our peace and
safety. At the same time, the U.S. would not involve itself in
European affairs or interfere with existing colonies in the
Western Hemisphere.

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These principles became known as the Monroe Doctrine. The doctrine

became a foundation for future American policy and represented an
important step onto the world stage by the assertive young nation.

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