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Pneumatics
What is Air?
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Carbon Dioxide
Argon
Nitrous Oxide
Water Vapor
In a typical cubic foot of air --there are over 3,000,000
particles of dust, dirt, pollen,
and other contaminants.
Industrial air may be 3 times (or more)
more polluted.
The weight of a
one square inch
column of air
(from sea level
to the outer atmosphere,
@ 680 F, & 36% RH)
is 14.69 pounds.
6
0
4.98
5
6.99
10
9.86
15
13.76
20
18.99
25
25.94
30
35.12
35
47.19
40
63.03
4.98
6.86
9.51
13.04
17.69
23.76
31.64
41.83
54.11
0
4.98
5
3.36
10
2.28
15
1.52
20
1.00
25
0.64
30
0.4
35
0.25
40
0.15
g/m (Atmospheric)
4.98
3.42
2.37
1.61
1.08
0.7
0.45
0.29
0.18
Temperature F
g/ft3 *(Standard)
g/ft3 (Atmospheric)
Temperature F
g/ft3 (Standard)
g/ft3 (Atmospheric)
32
.137
.137
32
.137
.137
40
.188
.185
30
.126
.127
60
80
.78
.71
10
.053
.056
100
1.48
1.29
0
.033
.036
120
2.65
2.22
-10
.020
.023
140
4.53
3.67
-20
.012
.014
160
7.44
5.82
-30
.007
.009
180
11.81
8.94
40
.004
.005
g/m n *(Standard)
3
g/m (Atmospheric)
Temperature C
3
g/m n (Standard)
3
.4
.375
20
.083
.085
S = 1 mm 2
Example
P1 = 6bar
P1
P2
P = 1bar
P2 = 5bar
Q = 54 l/min
Sonic Flow
Range
1
0
20
40
Qn
60
80
(54.44 l / min)
100
120
3
Q (dm n /min)
8
Air Treatment
Compressing Air
One cubic foot of air
Compression
ratio
psig + 1 atm
1 atm
compressor
One cubic foot of
100 psig
compressed air
CFM
vs
SCFM
Relative Humidity
Compressor
Exit
Reservoir
Tank
Adsorbtion Dryer
Airline
Drop
Compressor
100% RH
57.1
grams of H20
100% RH
.73
grams of H20
100% RH
.01
grams of H20
0.15% RH
.01
grams of H20
56.37
grams of H20
.72
grams of H20
11
Air Mains
Dead-End
Main
Ring
Main
12
Pressure
It should be noted that the SI unit of pressure is the Pascal (Pa)
1 Pa = 1 N/m2 (Newton per square meter)
13
P1 x V1 = P2 x V2
P2 = P1 x V1
V2
V2 = P1 x V1
P2
Example P2 = ?
P1 = Pa (1.013bar)
V1 = 1m
V2 = .5m
P2 = 1.013 x 1
.5
= 2.026 bar
14
Example V2 = ?
V1 = 2m
T1 = 273K (0C)
T2 = 303K (30C)
V2 = 2 x 303
273
= 2.219m
15
10
P1 x P2
T1 x T2
P2 = P1 x T2
T1
T2 = T1 x P2
P1
Example P2 = ?
P1 = 4bar
T1 = 273K (OC)
T2 = 298K (25C)
P2 = 4 x 298
273
= 4.366bar
16
P1 = ________bar
T1 = _______C ______K
T2 = _______C ______K
17
(mm)
2.5
1000
10
12
16
20
25
100000
50000
40000
300
250
200
p : (bar) 10
150
25000
20000
15000
125
12500
100
10000
50
40
5000
4000
30
25
20
15
2500
2000
1500
12.5
1250
5
4
500
400
10
2.5
1000
32
40
50
63
80
100
125 140
160
200
(mm)
250
250
300
18
F (N)
F (N)
500
400
30
4 x FE
x P
FE = 1600N
P = 6 bar.
D=
4 x 1600
3.14 x 600,000
D=
6400
1884000
D = .0583m
D = 58.3mm
19
Load Ratio
This ratio expresses the percentage of the required force
needed from the maximum available theoretical force at a
given pressure.
L.R.= required force x 100%
available theoretical force
max.
20
Cyl.Dia
Mass (kg)
25
100
50
25
12.5
51.8
32
180
90
45
22.5
54.9
40
250
125
65
35
54.6
50
400
--
200
71.3
35.7
84.8
42.4
67.4
33.7
80.1
40.1
69.7
34.8
82.8
41.4
71.4
35.7
84.4
42.2
63
80
100
100
50
50
650
300
150
75
(94.4)
47.2
1000
500
250
125
(97.6)
48.8
1600
800
400
200
50
60
0.2
0.01
(87.2) (96.7)
43.6
48.3
0.01
71.5
35.7
45
0.2
84.9
342.5
0.01
50.9
25.4
(95.6)
47.8
53
78.4
39.2
(93.1)
46.6
47.6
52.8
72.4
39
(86)
46.3
(87)
43.5
(96.5)
48.3
82.3
41.1
(91.2)
45.6
85
42.5
(94.3)
47.1
(87)
43.5
(96.5)
48.3
30
0.2
67.4
33.7
0.01
4
2.2
1
0.5
0.2
55.8
27.9
73.9
37
4.4
2.2
1.1
0.55
43.9
22
11
(99.2)
51.6
27.8
68.3
36.8
3.9
2
1
0.5
78
39
20.3
10.9
79.9
50.8
25.4
67.3
33.6
1
0.5
40
48
24
63.6
31.8
4.1
1.9
0.9
0.5
81.8
37.8
18.9
9.4
49.6
24.8
65.7
32.8
3.9
2
1
0.5
78.1
39
19.5
9.8
50.8
25.4
67.3
33.6
4
2
1
0.5
79.9
40
20
10
80
40
20
10
20
0
Table 6.16 Load Ratios for 5 bar working pressure and friction coefficients of 0.01 and 0.2
21
Speed control
The speed of a cylinder is define by the
extra force behind the piston, above the
force opposed by the load
The lower the load ratio, the better the
speed control.
22
Angle of Movement
1. If we totally neglect friction, which cylinder diameter is needed to
horizontally push a load with an 825 kg mass with a pressure of 6 bar;
speed is not important.
2. Which cylinder diameter is necessary to lift the same mass with the
same pressure of 6 bar vertically if the load ratio can not exceed 50%.
F = G (sin + cos )
F=G
F = G
W a =m /2 v
Example
F = ________ (N)
= .01
150kg
40
25
= __
______kg
_____
Force Y = sin x M =
Force X = cos x x M =
Total Force = Y + X =
F = ________ (N)
26
Temperature C
0
4.98
5
6.99
10
9.86
15
13.76
20
18.99
25
25.94
30
35.12
35
47.19
40
63.03
4.98
6.86
9.51
13.04
17.69
23.76
31.64
41.83
54.11
0
4.98
5
3.36
10
2.28
15
1.52
20
1.00
25
0.64
30
0.4
35
0.25
40
0.15
3
g/m (Atmospheric) 4.98
3.42
2.37
1.61
1.08
0.7
0.45
0.29
0.18
g/m n *(Standard)
3
g/m (Atmospheric)
Temperature C
3
g/m n (Standard)
27
13
28
13
V = 10m
T1= 15C
T2= 25C
P1 = 1.013bar
P2 = 6bar
r.h = 65%
? H0
will condense out
6+
29
13
V = __________m
T1= __________C
T2= __________C
P1 =__________bar
P2 =__________bar
r.h =__________%
?
__________H0
will condense out
30
31
16
P1 = 7bar
P2 = 6.3bar
S = 12mm
l/min
Q = 602 l/min
32
16,17
P1 = _________bar
P2 = _________bar
S = _________mm
Q = ____?_____l/min
33
Receiver sizing
Example
V = capacity of receiver
Q = compressor output l/min
Pa = atmospheric pressure
P1 = compressor output
pressure
V = Q x Pa
P1 + Pa
If
Q = 5000
P1 = 9 bar
Pa = 1.013
V = 5000 x 1.013
9 + 1.013
V = 5065 10.013
V = 505.84 liters
34
22
35
29
36
29
37
30
31
4"
2
1.5
2
3.0
2.5
2.25
2.0
1.75
1.5
1
0.5
0.4
6
7
8
0.5
0.4
10
11
12
0.2
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.15
0.1
2.5"
2"
60
50
1.5"
40
1.25"
35
30
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.025
0.02
0.3
0.25
0.015
0.2
Line
Pressure
(bar)
80
70
0.3
4
5
3"
100
90
0.01
0.15
1"
3/4"
1/2"
25
20
15
3/8"
X
p
kPa / m
= bar /100 m
Pipe Length
3
Q (m n /s
Reference
Line
39
33
Type of Fitting
Elbow
90* Bend (long)
90* Elbow
180* Bend
Globe Valve
Gate Valve
Standard Tee
Side Tee
80
1.8
0.9
3.9
2.6
5.2
0.6
0.9
3.7
100
2.4
1.2
5.4
3.7
7.3
0.9
1.2
4.1
125
3.2
1.5
7.1
4.1
9.4
1.2
1.5
6.4
40
34
30kPa = 0.22kPa/m
135m
Chart lines on Nomogram
31
4"
2
1.5
2
3.0
2.5
2.25
2.0
1.75
1.5
1
0.5
0.4
6
7
8
0.5
0.4
10
11
12
0.2
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.15
0.1
2.5"
2"
60
50
1.5"
40
1.25"
35
30
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.025
0.02
0.3
0.25
0.015
0.2
Line
Pressure
(bar)
80
70
0.3
4
5
3"
100
90
0.01
0.15
1"
3/4"
1/2"
25
20
15
3/8"
X
p
kPa / m
= bar /100 m
Pipe Length
3
Q (m n /s
Reference
Line
42
33
Q = 20,000 l/min
P1 = 10 bar (_________kPa)
P = .5 bar (_________kPa)
L = 200 m pipe length
P = kPa/m
L
l/min x .00001667 = m/s
43
Aftercooler
Tank
Refrigerated
Air Dryer
Auto
Drain
Compressor
a
Auto
Drain
2
3
a Micro Filter
b Sub-micro Filter
c Odor Removal Filter
d Adsorbtion Air
Dryer
a
4
5
6
7
44
39
Example
F = 2057.328 N
45
54
(mm)
2.5
1000
10
12
16
20
25
100000
50000
40000
300
250
200
p : (bar) 10
150
25000
20000
15000
125
12500
100
10000
50
40
5000
4000
30
25
20
2500
2000
1500
15
12.5
1250
5
4
500
400
10
2.5
1000
32
40
50
63
80
100
125 140
160
200
(mm)
250
250
300
46
F (N)
F (N)
500
400
30
Example
Calculate remaining force
M = 100kg
P = 5bar
= 32mm
= 0.2
F = /4 x Dx P = 401.9 N
From chart 6.16
90KG = 43.9% Lo.
To find Lo for 100kg
196 x 95 = 185.7 N
100
Newtons = kg m/s , therefor
= 1.857 m/s
47
M = _______kg
P = _______bar
= _______mm
= 0.2
F = /4 x Dx P = 401.9 N
48
Piston dia.
20
25
32
40
50
63
80
100
3
0.124
0.194
0.319
0.498
0.777
1.235
1.993
3.111
7
0.248
0.388
0.636
0.993
1.553
2.465
3.975
6.211
Table 6.19 Theoretical Air Consumption of double acting cylinders from 20 to 100 mm dia,
in liters per 100 mm stroke
Example.
= 80
stroke = 400mm
s/min = 12 x 2
P
= 6bar.
Qt = Q x
stroke(mm)
100
Qt = 3.5 x 400 x 24
100
Qt = 3.5 x 4 x 24
Qt = 336 l/min.
50
Peak Flow
For sizing the valve of an individual cylinder we need to
calculate Peak flow. The peak flow depends on the
cylinders highest possible speed. The peak flow of all
simultaneously moving cylinders defines the flow to which
the FRL has to be sized.
To compensate for adiabatic change, the theoretical
volume flow has to be multiplied by a factor of 1.4. This
represents a fair average confirmed in a high number of
practical tests.
Q = 1.4 x D (m) x x (P + Pa) x stroke(m) x # strokes/min x 1000
4
51
Piston dia.
20
25
32
40
50
63
80
100
3
0.174
0.272
0.446
0.697
1.088
1.729
2.790
4.355
7
0.347
0.543
0.890
1.391
2.174
3.451
5.565
8.696
Example.
= 80
stroke = 400mm
s/min = 12 x 2
P
= 6bar
Qt= Q
x stroke(mm)
100
Qt = 4.9 x 400 x 24
Qt = 4.9 x 4 x 24
Qt = 470.4 l/min.
52
Formulae comparison
Q = 473.54
53
= _______mm
stroke = _______mm
s/min = _______ x 2
P
=_______bar
54
Inertia
Example 1
a
m = 10kg
a = 30mm
j = ___?
J= m (kg) x a (m)
12
J= 10 x .03
12
J= 10 x .0009
12
J = .00075
55
Inertia
Example 2
a
J = ma x a + mb x b
3
J = 3 x .01 + 6 x .02
3
m = 9 kg
a = 10mm
b = 20mm
J = ___?
3
J = 3 x .0001 + 6 x .0004
3
3
J = .0001 + .0008
J = .0009
56
m = ________ kg
a
a = _________mm
b = _________mm
J = _________?
57
Valve identification
A(4)
EA P
B(2)
EB
58
Valve Sizing
The Cv factor of 1 is a flow capacity of one US
Gallon of water per minute, with a pressure drop
of 1 psi.
The kv factor of 1 is a flow capacity of one liter
of water per minute with a pressure drop of 1bar.
The equivalent Flow Section S of a valve is
the flow section in mm2 of an orifice in a
diaphragm, creating the same relationship
between pressure and flow.
59
273
273 +
273
273 +
Q = 22.2 x S x
(P2 + 1.013) x P x
The normal flow Qn for other various flow capacity units is:
The Relationship between these units is as follows:
273
273 +
1 Cv =
1 kv =
981.5
68.85
1S=
54.44
1
0.07
0.055
14.3
1
0.794
18
1.26
1
60
Flow example
S = 35
P1 = 6 bar
P2 =5.5 bar
= 25C
Q = 22.2 x 35 x
298
6.613 x .5
x 273
Q = 22.2 x 35 x 6.613 x .5
298
x 273
273
Q = 1405.383
61
Cv = ________
between 1 -5
P1 = ________bar
P2 = ________5 bar
= ________C
62
400 x
Kv =
27.94 x
S =
22.2 x
(P2 + 1.013) x P
(P2 + 1.013) x P
(P2 + 1.013) x P
63
Q = 750 l/min
P1 = 9 bar
P = 10%
S = ?
S =
Q
22.2 x (P2 + 1.013) x P
S =
750
22.2 x (8.1 + 1.013) x .9
S =
750
22.2 x 9.113 x .9
S =
750
22.2 x 2.86
S = 750
S = 11.81
63.49
64
Q = _________ l/min
P1 = _________ bar
P = _________%
Cv = _________ ?
65
1
1 + 1 + 1
S1 S2 S3
Example
S1 = 12mm
S2 = 18mm
S3 = 22mm
S total
1
1 + 1 + 1
12 18 22
S total
1
1 + 1 + 1
144 324 484
S total
1
.00694 + .00309 + .00207
.0121
S total = 9.09
66
Cv = _________
Cv = _________
Cv = _________
Cv total = ________
67
S mm
60
50
40
7.5
30
6
20
10
0
0.02
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.5
5
10
Tube Length in
m
68
Tube
Dia.
(mm)
4 x 2.5
6x4
8x5
8x6
10 x 6.5
10 x 7.5
12 x 8
12 x 9
Material
N,U
N,U
U
N
U
N
U
N
Length
1m
0.5 m
1.86
6.12
10.65
16.64
20.19
28.64
33.18
43.79
3.87
7.78
13.41
20.28
24.50
33.38
39.16
51.00
Fittings
Insert type
straight
elbow
1.6
1.6
6
11
17
35
30
35
45
One Touch
straight
elbow
5.6
4.2
13.1
11.4
18
14.9
26.1
21.6
29.5
25
41.5
35.2
46.1
39.7
58.3
50.2
6
(9.5) 11
(12) 16
(24) 30
(23) 26
(24) 30
(27) 35
Total
0.5 m tube +
2 strt. fittings
1.48
3.18
3.72
5.96
6.73
9.23
10.00
13.65
12.70
15.88
19.97
22.17
20.92
25.05
29.45
32.06
69
dia. mm
8,10
12,16
20
25
32
40
50
63
80
100
125
140
160
50
0.1
0.12
0.2
0.35
0.55
0.85
1.4
2.1
3.4
5.4
8.4
10.6
13.8
100
0.1
0.23
0.4
0.67
1.1
1.7
2.7
4.2
6.8
10.8
16.8
21.1
27.6
750
0.75
1.8
3
5
8.5
12.8
20.3
31.5
51
81
126
158
207
1000
1
2.4
4
6.7
11
17
27
42
68
108
168
211
276
Table 7.31 Equivalent Section S in mm2 for the valve and the tubing, for 6
bar working pressure and a pressure drop of 1 bar (Qn Conditions)
70
Flow Amplification
71
Signal Inversion
72
Selection
red
green
73
Memory Function
red
green
74
Delayed switching on
75
76
Pulse on switching on
77
78
79
Shuttle Valve
80
81
82
Direct Control
P
84
85
Cam valve
86
Repeating Strokes
87
Sequence Control
2
88
A+
B+
A-
b0
B-
a1
start
ao
b1
Signals
a1
Start
Commands
A+
b1
B+
a0
A-
b0
B-
89
Auto Drain
Air Cooler
Water
Separator
Filter
Refrigerated
Air Dryer
Filter /
Separator
Air Dryer
Air
Heater
Filter /
Multi stage
Separator
Micro Filter
w. Auto Drain
Heat
Exchanger
Lubricator
Pressure Regulation
Basic
Symbol
Adjustable
Setting
Spring
Pressure
Regulator
Regulator
with relief
Differential
Pressure
Regulator
Pressure
Gauge
Units
FRL Unit,
simplified
90
Rotary Actuator,
double Acting
91
Lever:
Push Button:
Push-Pull Button:
Mechanical (plunger):
Detent for mechanical and manual operators (makes a monostable valve bistable):
Air Operation is shown by drawing the (dashed) signal pressure line to the side of
the square; the direction of the signal flow can be indicated by a triangle:
Air Operation for piloted operation is shown by a rectangle with a triangle. This
symbol is usually combined with another operator.
Direct solenoid operation
92
Manual
Operation
Closed
Input
Input
connected to Return
Output
Spring
Manual
Operation
Closed
Input
Input
connected to Return
Output
Spring
OR
Manually Operated,
Normally Open 3/2 valve
(normally passing)
with Spring
Return
Air Supply
Exhaust
Mechanical
Operation
Input
connected to
Output
Input closed,
Output
exhausted
Return
Spring
Mechanical
Operation
Input
connected to
Output
Input closed,
Return
Output
exhausted Spring
OR
Mechanically
normally closed 3/2
Operated,
(non-passing)
Valve with Spring Return
Air Supply
Exhaust
93
no pressure
pressure
pressure
no pressure
pressure
an1
an1
All valves with index "0" are operated.
pressure
an
no pressure
an
94
0
A+
A-
B+
B-
POWER Level
LOGIC Level
Memories,
AND's, OR's,
Timings etc.
Start
Codes: a 0 , a1 , b0 , b , c0
1
and c1 .
95