ECE 476

POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Lecture 9
Transformers, Per Unit

Professor Tom Overbye

Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering

Announcements

Be reading Chapter 3
HW 3 is 4.32, 4.41, 5.1, 5.14. Due September 22 in class.

Transformer Equivalent Circuit

Using the previous relationships, we can derive an
equivalent circuit model for the real transformer

This model is further simplified by referring all

impedances to the primary side
r2' a 2 r2

re r1 r2'

x2' a 2 x2

xe x1 x2'
3

Simplified Equivalent Circuit

Calculation of Model Parameters

The

parameters of the model are determined based

upon

nameplate data: gives the rated voltages and power

open circuit test: rated voltage is applied to primary with
secondary open; measure the primary current and losses
(the test may also be done applying the voltage to the
secondary, calculating the values, then referring the
values back to the primary side).
short circuit test: with secondary shorted, apply voltage to
primary to get rated current to flow; measure voltage and
losses.
5

Transformer Example
Example: A single phase, 100 MVA, 200/80 kV
transformer has the following test data:
open circuit: 20 amps, with 10 kW losses
short circuit: 30 kV, with 500 kW losses
Determine the model parameters.

Transformer Example, contd

From the short circuit test
100 MVA
30 kV
I sc
500 A, R e jX e
60
200kV
500 A
2
Psc Re I sc
500 kW R e 2 ,

Hence X e 602 22 60
From the open circuit test
200 kV 2
Rc
4M
10 kW
200 kV
R e jX e jX m
10, 000
20 A

X m 10, 000
7

Residential Distribution Transformers

Single phase transformers are commonly used in
residential distribution systems. Most distribution
systems are 4 wire, with a multi-grounded, common
neutral.

Per Unit Calculations

A key

problem in analyzing power systems is the

large number of transformers.

It would be very difficult to continually have to refer

impedances to the different sides of the transformers

This

problem is avoided by a normalization of all

variables.
This normalization is known as per unit analysis.
actual quantity
quantity in per unit
base value of quantity
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Per Unit Conversion Procedure, 1

1.

Pick a 1 VA base for the entire system, SB

2.

3.

Pick a voltage base for each different voltage level,

VB. Voltage bases are related by transformer turns
ratios. Voltages are line to neutral.
Calculate the impedance base, ZB= (VB)2/SB

4.

Calculate the current base, IB = VB/ZB

Convert actual values to per unit

Note, per unit conversion on affects magnitudes, not
the angles. Also, per unit quantities no longer have
units (i.e., a voltage is 1.0 p.u., not 1 p.u. volts)
5.

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Per Unit Solution Procedure

1.
2.
3.

Convert to per unit (p.u.) (many problems are

already in per unit)
Solve
Convert back to actual as necessary

11

Per Unit Example

Solve for the current, load voltage and load power
in the circuit shown below using per unit analysis
with an SB of100MVA,andvoltagebasesof
8kV,80kVand16kV.

Original Circuit
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Per Unit Example, contd

Z BLeft

8kV 2

0.64
100 MVA

Middle
ZB

Z BRight

80kV 2

64
100 MVA
2

16kV

2.56
100 MVA
Same circuit, with
values expressed
in per unit.
13

Per Unit Example, contd

1.00
I
0.22 30.8 p.u. (not amps)
3.91 j 2.327
VL 1.00 0.22 30.8
p.u.
2

VL
SL

0.189 p.u.
Z
SG 1.00 0.2230.8 30.8p.u.
VL I L*

14

Per Unit Example, contd

To convert back to actual values just multiply the
per unit values by their per unit base
V LActual 0.859 30.8 16 kV 13.7 30.8 kV
S LActual 0.1890 100 MVA 18.90 MVA
SGActual 0.2230.8 100 MVA 22.030.8 MVA
I Middle
B

100 MVA

1250 Amps
80 kV

I Actual
Middle 0.22 30.8 Amps 275 30.8
15

Three Phase Per Unit

Procedure is very similar to 1 except we use a 3
VA base, and use line to line voltage bases
2.

Pick a 3 VA base for the entire system, S B3

Pick a voltage base for each different voltage level,
VB. Voltages are line to line.

3.

Calculate the impedance base

1.

ZB

VB2, LL
S B3

( 3 VB , LN ) 2
3S 1B

VB2, LN
S 1B

Exactly the same impedance bases as with single phase!

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Three Phase Per Unit, cont'd

4.

Calculate the current base, IB

3
IB

S B3
3 S 1B
S 1B
1

IB
3 VB , LL
3 3 VB , LN VB , LN

Exactly the same current bases as with single phase!

5. Convert actual values to per unit

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Three Phase Per Unit Example

Solve for the current, load voltage and load power
in the previous circuit, assuming a 3 power base of
300MVA,andlinetolinevoltagebasesof13.8kV,
138kVand27.6kV(squarerootof3largerthanthe
1examplevoltages).Alsoassumethegeneratoris
Yconnectedsoitslinetolinevoltageis13.8kV.
Convert to per unit
as before. Note the
system is exactly the
same!
18

3 Per Unit Example, cont'd

1.00
I
0.22 30.8 p.u. (not amps)
3.91 j 2.327
VL 1.00 0.22 30.8
p.u.
2

VL
SL

0.189 p.u.
Z
SG 1.00 0.2230.8 30.8p.u.
*
VL I L

Again, analysis is exactly the same!

19

3 Per Unit Example, cont'd

Differences appear when we convert back to actual values
V LActual 0.859 30.8 27.6 kV 23.8 30.8 kV
Actual
SL
SGActual

I Middle
B

0.1890 300 MVA 56.70 MVA

0.2230.8 300 MVA 66.030.8 MVA
300 MVA

1250 Amps (same current!)

3 138 kV

I Actual
Middle 0.22 30.8 Amps 275 30.8

20

3 Per Unit Example 2

Assume a 3 load of 100+j50 MVA with VLL of 69 kV
is connected to a source through the below network:

What is the supply current and complex power?

Answer: I=467 amps, S = 103.3 + j76.0 MVA

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Per Unit Change of MVA Base

Parameters

for equipment are often given using

power rating of equipment as the MVA base
To analyze a system all per unit data must be on a
common power base
OriginalBase
Z pu

Z actual

Hence ZOriginalBase

pu
ZOriginalBase

pu

NewBase
Z pu

2
Vbase

/
OriginalBase

S Base

NewBase
S Base

OriginalBase
S Base

2
Vbase

NewBase
S Base

NewBase
Z pu

NewBase
Z pu
22

Per Unit Change of Base Example

A 54 MVA transformer has a leakage reactance or
3.69%. What is the reactance on a 100 MVA base?
100
X e 0.0369
0.0683 p.u.
54

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Transformer Reactance
Transformer

reactance is often specified as a

percentage, say 10%. This is a per unit value
(divide by 100) on the power base of the
transformer.
Example: A 350 MVA, 230/20 kV transformer has
leakage reactance of 10%. What is p.u. value on
100 MVA base? What is value in ohms (230 kV)?
100
X e 0.10
0.0286 p.u.
350
2

230
0.0286
15.1
100

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Three Phase Transformers

There are 4 different ways to connect 3 transformers
Y-Y

Usually 3 transformers are constructed so all windings

share a common core
25

3 Transformer Interconnections
-Y

Y-

26

Y-Y Connection

Magnetic coupling with An/an, Bn/bn & Cn/cn

VAn
VAB
IA 1
a,
a,

Van
Vab
Ia a
27

Y-Y Connection: 3 Detailed Model

28

Y-Y Connection: Per Phase Model

Per phase analysis of Y-Y connections is exactly the

same as analysis of a single phase transformer.
Y-Y connections are common in transmission systems.
Key advantages are the ability to ground each side
and there is no phase shift is introduced.

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 - Connection

Magnetic coupling with AB/ab, BC/bb & CA/ca

VAB
I AB 1 I A 1
a,
,

Vab
I ab a I a a
30

 - Connection: 3 Detailed Model

To use the per phase equivalent we need to use

the delta-wye load transformation
31

 - Connection: Per Phase Model

Per phase analysis similar to Y-Y except impedances

are decreased by a factor of 3.
Key disadvantage is - connections can not be
grounded; not commonly used.
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 -Y Connection

Magnetic coupling with AB/an, BC/bn & CA/cn

33

 -Y Connection V/I Relationships

VAB
VAB
a,
Van Vab 3 Van30
Van
a
VAB 30
VAn30
Hence Vab 3
and Van 3
a
a
For current we get
I AB 1
I a a I AB
I ab a
I A 3 I AB 30 I AB

I A30
3

1
a a I A30
3
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 -Y Connection: Per Phase Model

Note: Connection introduces a 30 degree phase shift!

Common for transmission/distribution step-down since
there is a neutral on the low voltage side.
Even if a = 1 there is a sqrt(3) step-up ratio
35

Y- Connection: Per Phase Model

Exact opposite of the -Y connection, now with a

phase shift of -30 degrees.

36

Load Tap Changing Transformers

LTC

transformers have tap ratios that can be varied to

regulate bus voltages
The typical range of variation is 10% from the nominal
values, usually in 33 discrete steps (0.0625% per step).
Because tap changing is a mechanical process, LTC
transformers usually have a 30 second deadband to avoid
repeated changes.
Unbalanced tap positions can cause "circulating vars"

37

LTCs and Circulating Vars

slack

64 MW
14 Mvar
1.00 pu

24.1 MW
12.8 Mvar

40.2 MW
1.7 Mvar

1.000 tap

80%

40.0 MW
-0.0 Mvar

24.0 MW
-12.0 Mvar
2

1.056 tap

MVA

MVA

0.98 pu

1.05 pu
0.0 Mvar

24 MW
12 Mvar

40 MW
0 Mvar

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Phase Shifting Transformers

Phase

shifting transformers are used to control the

phase angle across the transformer
Since power flow through the transformer depends
upon phase angle, this allows the transformer to
regulate the power flow through the transformer
Phase shifters can be used to prevent inadvertent
"loop flow" and to prevent line overloads.

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Phase Shifter Example 3.13

345.00 kV

500 MW

341.87 kV

283.9 MW
39.0 Mvar

283.9 MW
6.2 Mvar

slack

164 Mvar
Phase Shifting Transformer

216.3 MW
125.0 Mvar

500 MW
100 Mvar

216.3 MW
0.0 deg
93.8 Mvar
1.05000 tap

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ComED Control Center

41

ComED Phase Shifter Display

42

Autotransformers
Autotransformers

are transformers in which the

primary and secondary windings are coupled
magnetically and electrically.
This results in lower cost, and smaller size and
weight.
The key disadvantage is loss of electrical isolation
between the voltage levels. Hence autotransformers are not used when a is large. For
example in stepping down 7160/240 V we do not
ever want 7160 on the low side!
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