Digital to Analog Conversion

Heather Humphreys
Cheng Shu Ngoo
Woongsik Ham
Ken Marek

Woongsik Ham

Topics Discussed
What is a DAC?
Applications
Types of DAC circuit
Binary weighted DAC
R-2R Ladder DAC
Specifications of DAC
Resolution
Reference Voltage
Speed
Settling Time
Linearity
DAC associated errors

Woongsik Ham

What is a DAC?
A digital to analog converter (DAC) is a

device that converts digital numbers

(binary) into an analog voltage or current
output.

Woongsik Ham

Principal components of DAC

Woongsik Ham

What is a DAC?

Digital Analog
Each binary number sampled by the DAC

Analog Output Signal

corresponds to a different output level.

0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011
Digital Input Signal

Typical Output

Woongsik Ham

DACs capture and hold a number, convert it

to a physical signal, and hold that value for a
given sample interval. This is known as a
zero-order hold and results in a piecewise
constant output.
DAC

Ideally Sampled Signal

Output typical of a real, practical

DAC due to sample & hold

Woongsik Ham

Types of DAC
Multiplying DAC*
Reference source external to DAC package

Nonmultiplying DAC
Reference source inside DAC package
*Multiplying DAC is advantageous considering the external
reference.

Woongsik Ham

Common Applications
Used when a continuous analog signal is

required.
Signal from DAC can be smoothed by a Low
pass filter

Digital Input

Piece-wise
Continuous Output

0 bit

011010010101010100101
101010101011111100101
000010101010111110011
010101010101010101010
111010101011110011000
100101010101010001111

n bit DAC
nth bit

Analog
Continuous Output

Filter

Woongsik Ham

Common Applications:
Function Generators
Digital Oscilloscopes
Digital Input
Analog Ouput

Signal Generators
Sine wave generation
Square wave generation
Triangle wave generation
Random noise generation

Applications Video

Woongsik Ham

Video signals from digital sources, such as a

computer or DVD must be converted to
analog signals before being displayed on an
analog monitor. Beginning on February 18 th,
2009 all television broadcasts in the United
States will be in a digital format, requiring
ATSC tuners (either internal or set-top box)
to convert the signal to analog.

Woongsik Ham

Common Applications
Motor Controllers

Cruise Control
Valve Control
Motor Control

Woongsik Ham

Types of DAC
Multiplying DAC*
Reference source external to DAC package

Nonmultiplying DAC
Reference source inside DAC package
*Multiplying DAC is advantageous considering the external
reference.

Types of DAC
implementations

Binary Weighted Resistor

R-2R Ladder
Pulse Width Modulator (not covered)
Oversampling DAC (used internally in

HCS12)

Ken Marek

Ken Marek

Binary Weighted Resistor

Start with summing
op-amp circuit
Input voltage either
high or ground
Adjust resistor
weighting to
achieve desired Vout

Ken Marek

Binary Weighted Resistor

Details
Use transistors to
switch between high
and ground
Use resistors scaled by
two to divide voltage
on each branch by a
power of two
V1 is MSB, V4 LSB in
this circuit

Assumptions:
Ideal Op-Amp
No Current into OpAmp
Virtual Ground at

Ken Marek

Binary Weighted Resistor

Assume
B5
B4
B3
B2
B1
B0

Vout

Bn 1 Bn 2
IRf Rf Vref

2R
R

binary
inputs B0
(LSB) to Bn-1
(MSB)
Each Bi = 1
or 0 and is
multiplied
by Vref to
get input
B0
B1 voltage
... n 2 n-1

2 R

Ken Marek

Binary Weighted Resistor

Example: take a 4-bit converter, R f = aR

B3 B2 B1 B0
Vout aVref

2 4 8
1
Input parameters:
Input voltage Vref = -2V
Binary input = 1011
Coefficient a =

Vout

1
11
1 0 1 1
2 1.375V
2
8
1 2 4 8

Ken Marek

Binary Weighted Resistor

Resolution: find minimum nonzero output

Vmin

Rf Vref
R 2n-1
V

ref is
If Rf = R/2 then resolution

2n

and max VoutVis

max Vref

1
1 n
2

Ken Marek

Binary Weighted Resistor

Advantages
Simple
Fast

Disadvantages
Need large range of resistor values (2048:1

for 12-bit) with high precision in low resistor

values
Need very small switch resistances
Op-amp may have trouble producing low
currents at the low range of a high precision
DAC

Ken Marek

R-2R Ladder
Each bit

corresponds to a
switch:
If the bit is high, the

corresponding switch
is connected to the
inverting input of
the op-amp.
If the bit is low, the
corresponding switch
is connected to
ground.

Ken Marek

R-2R Ladder
B2
B1
B0

Ken Marek

R-2R Ladder
Circuit may be

analyzed using
Thevenins theorem
(replace network
with equivalent
voltage source and
resistance)R f n 1 B
i
V

V
out
ref
Final
n i
result
is:
R
2

i 0

Compare to binary weighted circuit:

Vout Vref

Rf

n 1

R
2
i 0

Bi
( n 1) i

B2
B1
B0

Rf

Ken Marek

R-2R Ladder
Resolution

Vmin

Rf Vref
R 2n

Vref
If Rf = R then resolution is
2n
and max VoutVis
max Vref

1
1 n
2

Ken Marek

R-2R Ladder
Advantages:
Only 2 resistor values
Lower precision resistors acceptable

Disadvantages
Slower conversion rate

Ken Marek

General comments
Circuits as shown produce only unipolar

output
Replacing ground with Vref will allow Vout to
be positive or negative

Cheng Shu Ngoo

DAC Specifications:

Reference Voltages
Resolution
Speed
Settling Time
Linearity

Cheng Shu Ngoo

Reference Voltage
Determines Characteristic of DACs
Set externally or Generated inside DAC
Vref sets maximum DAC output voltage (if not amplified)
Full scale output voltage:

Vref determines analog output voltage changes to steps taken by 1 LSB of digital input signal

(resolution)

Eo ( fs )

Vref (2 n 1)
2n

X k A B

X = analog output
k = Constant
A = Vref analog
B = Binary (digital) input

Cheng Shu Ngoo

Reference Voltage
Internal vs. External Vref?

Internal

External

Non-Multiplier DAC

Multiplying DAC

Vref fixed by manufacturer

Vary Vref

Qualified for specified

Consider current required

temperature range

Consider Voltage range

Consider dynamic effects

of inner structure

*Multiplying DAC is advantageous considering the external reference.

Cheng Shu Ngoo

Resolution
1 LSB (digital)=1 step size for DAC output (analog)

Resolution

Vref
2n

Increasing the number of bits results in a finer resolution

Most DAC - 8 to 16-bits (256 to 65,536 steps)

e.g. 5Vref DAC

1LSB=5/28 =0.0195V resolution (8-bit)
5
1LSB=5/23 =0.625V resolution (3-bit)
5

3-bit Resolution

4.5
4

4.5
4

3.5

3.5

3
2.5

2.5

1.5

1.5

1
0.5

0.5

1 LSB

8-bit Resolution

Cheng Shu Ngoo

Speed (Max. Sampling Frequency)

The maximum rate at which DAC is reproducing usable

analog output from digital input register

Digital input signal that fluctuates at/ has high frequency
require high conversion speed
Speed is limited by the clock speed of the microcontroller
(input clock speed) and the settling time of the DAC
Shannon-Nyquist sampling theorem fsampling 2fmax
Eg. To reproduce audio signal up to 20kHz, standard CD

samples audio at 44.1kHz with DAC 40kHz

Typical computer sound cards 48kHz sampling freq
>1MHz for High Speed DACs

Settling Time

Cheng Shu Ngoo

The interval between a command to update (change)

its output value and the instant it reaches its final

value, within a specified percentage ( LSB)
Ideal DAC output would be sequence of impulses
Instantaneous update
Causes:
Slew rate of output amplifier
Amount of amplifier ringing and signal overshoot
Faster DACs have shorter settling time
Electronic switching fast
Amplifier settling time dominant effect

Cheng Shu Ngoo

Settling Time

tsettle

Cheng Shu Ngoo

DAC Linearity

The difference between the desired analog output and the actual

output over the full range of expected values

Does the DAC analog output vary linearly with digital input signal?
Can the DAC behavior follow a constant Transfer Function

relationship?
Ideally, proportionality constant linear slope
Increase in input increase in output monotonic
Integral non-linearity (INL) & Differential non-linearity (DNL)

Linear

Non-Linear

Heather Humphreys

Types of DAC Errors

Gain Error
Offset Error
Full Scale Error
Non-Monotonic Output Error
Differential Nonlinearity Error
Integral Nonlinearity Error
Settling Time and Overshoot Error
Resolution Error
Sources of Errors

Heather Humphreys

Gain Error
Slope deviation

from ideal gain

Low Gain: Step

Amplitude Less
than Ideal
High Gain:
Step Amplitude
Higher than
Ideal

Heather Humphreys

Offset Error
The voltage offset

from zero when all

input bits are low
*This error
may be
detected
when all input
bits are low
(i.e. 0).

Heather Humphreys

Full-Scale Error
Includes gain error

and offset error

Occurs when there
is an offset in
voltage form the
ideal output and a
deviation in slope
from the ideal gain.
Error at full scale
contrast with offset
error at zero

Heather Humphreys

Non-Monotonic Output Error

A form of non-linearity, due to errors in

individual bits of the input

Refers to output that is not monotonic

Heather Humphreys

Differential Nonlinearity Error

The largest difference between

the actual and theoretical output

as a percentage of full-scale
output voltage.
Voltage step size differences vary
as digital input increases. Ideally
each step should be equivalent.
In other words, DNL error is the
difference between the ideal and
the measured output responses
for successive steps.
An ideal DAC response would have
analog output values exactly one
code (LSB) apart (DNL = 0).

Heather Humphreys

Integral Nonlinearity Error

Occurs

when the output voltage is non linear;

an inability to adhere to the ideal slope.
INL is the deviation of an actual transfer
function from a straight line. After nullifying
offset and gain errors, the straight line is either
a best-fit straight line or a line drawn between
the end points of the transfer function.
INL is often called 'relative accuracy.'

Heather Humphreys

Settling Time and Overshoot

Error
Settling Time: The time

required for the voltage to

settle within +/- the voltage
associated with the VLSB. Any
change in the input time will
not be reflected immediately
due to the lag time.
Settling time generally
determines maximum
operating frequency of the
DAC
One of the principal limiting
factors of any commercial
DAC is the settling time of
the op-amp

Overshoot: occurs when

the output voltage

overshoots the desired
analog output voltage.

Resolution Errors

Heather Humphreys

Ref Voltage
Resolution
# of bits
2
Inherent errors associated with resolution
More Bits => Less Error & Greater Resolution
Less Bits => More Error & Less Resolution
Q: How does very high resolution affect measurements?
A: LSB may be in noise range and not produce an output;
it may be difficult to find an op-amp to amplify such small
current

Better Resolution (3 Bit)

Poor Resolution (1 Bit)

Heather Humphreys

Sources of Errors
Deviation of voltage sources from nominal

values
Variations and tolerances on resistance

values
Non-ideal operational amplifiers
Other non-ideal circuit components,

temperature dependence, etc.

Woongsik Ham

Project Applications
Motor speed controller
Solenoid valves (pneumatics)
Digital Motor Control
Computer Printers
Sound Equipment (e.g. CD/MP3 Players,

etc.)
Electronic Cruise Control
Digital Thermostat

References
Previous student presentations and
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_to_analog
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_4/chpt_13/index.html
Alicatore, David G. and Michael B Histand. Introduction to

Mechatronics and Measurement Systems, 2 nd ed. McGraw-Hill,

2003.
http://www.emersonprocess.com/fisher/products/fieldvue/dvc/
http://auto.howstuffworks.com/cruise-control.htm
http://www.thermionics.com/smc.htm
Maxim AN641 Glossary
http://www.electrorent.com/products/search/General_Purpose_Osci
lloscopes.html
http://www.bkprecision.com/power_supplies_supply_generators.ht
m
http://hyperphysics.phy-

astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/dac.html#c4