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COGNITIVE

DEVELOPMENT
IN MIDDLE AND LATE
CHILDHOOD

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Chapter
12

LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Discuss Piagets stage of concrete operational thought
and apply Piagets theory to education
Describe changes in information processing in middle
and late childhood
Characterize childrens intelligence
Summarize language development in middle and late
childhood
Explain the development of achievement in children
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CONCRETE OPERATIONAL THOUGHT


Concrete operational stage; ages 7-11
Reversible mental actions applied to real, concrete objects
Focus on several characteristics at once
Seriation: Ability to order stimuli along a quantitative
dimension
Transitivity: Ability to logically combine relations to
understand certain conclusions

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EVALUATING PIAGETS THEORY


His conclusions have been challenged:

Cognitive abilities can emerge earlier/later


Stages not unitary structures of thought
Some can be trained to reason at higher stage
Culture and education exert stronger influence

Neo-Piagetians: Developmentalists who have


elaborated on Piagets theory, giving more emphasis to
information processing, strategies, and precise
cognitive steps
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APPLICATIONS TO EDUCATION
Teach children:

Take constructivist approach


Facilitate rather than direct learning
Consider childs knowledge and level of thinking
Use ongoing assessment
Promote students intellectual health
Turn classroom into setting of exploration and discovery

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APPLICATIONS TO EDUCATION
Applying Vygotskys ideas
Encourage child to internalize and regulate self-talk
Provide opportunities to learn in real-world settings
Kamehameha Elementary Education Program (KEEP)
Small group activities, ZPD emphasis, question-and-answer format
Outcomes are impressive

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MEMORY
Dramatic improvement in middle/late childhood
Knowledge and expertise
Expert: extensive knowledge in specific area
Strategies (aka: control processes)
Deliberate mental actions to learn and retain information

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MEMORY
Strategies
Mental imagery used by young children
Elaboration used by older children
Fuzzy trace theory:
Two types of memory representations:

Verbatim memory trace: precise details


Gist: central idea of information

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THINKING
Critical thinking
Thinking reflectively and productively
Evaluate evidence, develop deep understanding
Successful grades is not indicator of critical thinker

Creative thinking
Think in novel and unusual ways
Produce unique solutions
Intelligence and creativity not the same

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THINKING
Creative thinking and intelligence
Convergent thinking: Intelligence reflected on conventional
tests; produce one correct answer
Divergent thinking: Creativity; produce many answers for
one question

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CARING FOR CHILDREN


Strategies to increase creative thinking

Encourage brainstorming
Provide stimulating environments
Dont overcontrol, build childs confidence
Encourage internal motivation
Guide child to be persistent, delay gratification
Encourage taking intellectual risks
Introduce children to creative people

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THINKING
Scientific thinking
Reasoning to identify causal relations
Need understanding of how things occur
Analyze before and after the effect

Reasoning of children differs from scientific


Scientists design experiments, hypotheses
Scientists separate evidence and theory
Child has many concepts incompatible with science and reality; not
routinely taught

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METACOGNITION
Cognition about cognition
Most focus on metamemory
Children ages 5 to 6

Familiar, related items easier to remember


Gist of a story is easier to remember
Focus on knowledge about strategies
Effective planning aids problem solving
Application of effective strategies is key

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INTELLIGENCE AND ITS ASSESSMENT


Intelligence
Problem-solving skills and ability to learn from everyday
experiences that allow adaptation
Individual differences exist
Verbal ability and problem-solving skills
Can only be measured indirectly

Intelligence tests
Binet tests (later Stanford-Binet Tests)

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FIGURE 12.3 - THE NORMAL CURVE AND


STANFORD-BINET IQ SCORES

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INTELLIGENCE AND ITS ASSESSMENT


The Wechsler Scales
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence III
(WISC-III)
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children IV Integrated
(WISC-IV integrated)
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III)

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TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE
Sternbergs Triarchic theory
3 main forms; individual patterns vary
Analytic intelligence
Creative intelligence
Practical intelligence

Some patterns favored conventional schooling


Creative patterns not always top-of-the-class

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TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE
Gardners eight types of intelligence (a.k.a. frames of
mind)

Verbal
Mathematical
Spatial
Bodily-Kinesthetic

Musical
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Naturalist

Everyone has all to varying degrees

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EVALUATING MULTIPLE
INTELLIGENCES
Controversial views
Stimulated educators to think more about childrens
competencies
Motivated new educational program development and
assessment
Some critics say views go too far
Controversy exists: multiple vs. general

Culture
Conceptual differences exist; cultural values influence what
is learned, rewarded
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INTERPRETING DIFFERENCES IN IQ
SCORES
Influence of genetics
Comparison of identical and fraternal twins
Identical twins: reared together and apart
Effects of environmental change

Heritability: variance due to genetics


Controversial; not without flaws

Environment affected by many factors


Parenting, education, ongoing change in culture/society, personal
experiences

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INTERPRETING DIFFERENCES IN IQ
SCORES
Environmental influences
Flynn Effect: IQ scores increasing rapidly
Emphasis on prevention, not remedial
Early interventions
High-quality child care
More focus on poor children
Continue programs into adolescence

Gaps between U.S. racial/ethnic groups


Gap narrows in college

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INTERPRETING DIFFERENCES IN IQ
SCORES
Creating Culture-Fair Tests
Tests free of cultural bias
Two types devised
Items known in all SES/ethnic backgrounds
No verbal questions

Difficulty in creating
Time limits may create bias
Language differences/picture unfamiliarity
Individual differences of experiences

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INTERPRETING DIFFERENCES IN IQ
SCORES
Using intelligence tests

Effectiveness depends on users skills


Avoid stereotyping and expectations
IQ is not sole indicator of competence
Use caution in interpreting overall IQ scores

Extremes of intelligence
Mental retardation (organic, cultural-familial)
Giftedness (IQ of 130 or more)

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INTERPRETING DIFFERENCES IN IQ
SCORES
Characteristics of giftedness
Three criteria
Precocity
Marching to their own drummer
A passion to master

Product of both heredity and environment


Currently, controversy over definitions
Negative consequences for being gifted

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VOCABULARY, GRAMMAR, AND


METALINGUISTIC AWARENESS
Children gain new skills in school
Alphabetic principle - Sounds of language
Begin to categorize vocabulary; mastery increases with age
Learn to use language in complex manner, producing
connected discourse
Metalinguistic awareness
Knowledge about language
Pragmatics: culturally appropriate uses

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READING

Whole-language
approach

Instruction should parallel


childrens natural language
learning; reading materials
should be whole and meaningful

Phonetics
approach

Stresses phonetics and basic


rules for translating symbols
into sounds; early reading
instruction should involve
simplified materials

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BILINGUALISM AND SECOND


LANGUAGE LEARNING
Sensitive periods for language learning vary across
different language systems
May be easier for late learners like adults
Adults may learn faster than children
Childrens final attainment level is higher

U.S. behind in children using 2nd language


Bilingualism has positive effect on childs cognitive
functioning, reading abilities

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EXTRINSIC AND INTRINSIC


MOTIVATION
Extrinsic: External rewards, punishments
Intrinsic: Internal desires, perceptions
Emphasizes self-determination

Motivation can be enhanced


Create engaging environments
Encourage self-responsibility

External and intrinsic can operate together

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MASTERY MOTIVATION AND


MINDSET
Mastery motivation: Task-oriented
Focus on learning strategies, process of achievement
Remember, adapt what worked before

Helpless orientation: Trapped by difficulty


Blame difficulty on lack of ability
Become anxious, failure becomes reality

Performance orientation: Focus on outcomes, goal is


winning

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MASTERY MOTIVATION AND


MINDSET
Mindset: Cognitive view of ones self
Fixed mindset
Belief that qualities are carved in stone and cannot change
similar to helpless orientation

Growth mindset
Belief that qualities can change; efforts can improve performance
similar to mastery orientation

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SELF- EFFICACY
Belief that one can master situation and produce
favorable outcomes
Common with mastery motivation and intrinsic motivation
Linked to effort and persistency
Critical factor in achievement

Self-efficacy influences selection, choices

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GOAL SETTING, PLANNING,


AND SELF-REGULATION
Self-efficacy and achievement improve when
individuals set goals that are:
Specific
Proximal
Challenging

Long-term and short-term are needed


It is important to:
Monitor progress
Evaluate outcomes
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SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS AND


CONTEXTS
Achievement affected by:
Relationships with parents, peers, teachers

Child-rearing practices are very important


Home activities/experiences important
Peers can have positive or negative effect
Teachers roles can help/harm motivation

Social contexts of ethnicity and culture


Minority disadvantages or deficits?
Distinct cultural differences have impact

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