Educational Research:

Causal-Comparative Studies

EDU 8603
Educational Research
Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.

Research...
The

systematic application of a
family of methods employed to
provide trustworthy information
about problems
an ongoing process based on many accumulated
understandings and explanations that, when taken
together lead to generalizations about problems and
the development of theories

The basic steps of research...

Scientific and disciplined inquiry is an
orderly process, involving:
recognition and identification of a
topic to be studied (problem)
problem
description and execution of
procedures to collection information
(method)
method
objective data analysis
statement of findings ( results)
results

Research methods...
Quantitative
Quantitative
collects and analyzes numerical data
obtained from formal instruments

Quantitative methods...
descriptive

research (survey research)

correlational

research

causal-comparative

research (ex post facto research)

experimental

research

 causal-comparative

research (ex post facto research)

at least two different groups are

compared on a dependent variable
or measure of performance (called
the effect) because the
independent variable (called the
cause) has already occurred or
cannot be manipulated

Research variables...
Independent
Independent
an activity of characteristic
believed to make a difference
with respect to some behavior
(syn.) experimental variable,
cause, treatment

dependent variable
variable
the change or difference occurring
as a result of the independent
variable
(syn.) criterion variable, effect,
outcome, posttest

A causal-comparative study
a study in which the researcher attempts to determine the cause, or reason,
for pre-existing differences in groups of individuals

called an ex post facto study because both the effect and the alleged
cause have already occurred and must be studied in retrospect

Differences in causal-comparison
and correlational studies

causal-comparative studies
attempt to identify cause-effect relationships

correlational studies

attempt to identify relationships

causal-comparative studies
involve two (or more) groups and one independent variable

correlational studies

typically involve two (or more) variables and one group

causal-comparative studies
involve making comparisons

correlational studies
involve establishing relationships

Differences in causal-comparison
and experimental studies

causal-comparative studies
individuals are not randomly selected but selected because they belong to
groups

experimental studies

individuals are randomly selected and assigned to two (or more) groups

causal-comparative studies
the researcher cannot manipulate the independent variable

experimental studies

the researcher manipulates the independent variable

causal-comparative studies
the independent variable has already occurred and cannot be manipulated

experimental studies

the researcher manipulates the independent variable to determine its

effects

causal-comparative studies
the random sample is selected from two already-existing populations

experimental studies

the random sample is selected from a single population

Conducting a causal-comparative
study
1. select the problem
2. select participants and instrument
3. design and procedure
4. data analysis and interpretation

1. select the problem

the researcher starts with an effect
and seeks its causes
the independent variable cannot or
should not be manipulated

2. select the participants and instrument

select samples representative of their respective
populations and similar with respect to critical
variables other than the independent variable

called comparison groups

groups

3. design and procedure

the performance of the groups is
compared using some valid dependent
variable measure (instrument)
instrument

lack of randomization, manipulation,

and control are sources of weakness

 control
the process by which the researcher attempts to ensure
that the findings are as free of researcher bias and error
as possible

 types of control

random assignment of participants to

groups
pair-wise matching
comparing homogeneous groups
comparing homogeneous subgroups
factorial analysis of variance
analysis of covariance

 random assignment of participants to groups

not possible in causal-comparative studies because the
groups already exist and have already received the
treatment

 pair-wise matching
first: find a participant in the second (third, fourth, etc.) group
with the same or similar score on the control
(nonmanipulated) variable as the participant in the first group

second: if a participant in either group does not have a

suitable match, the participant is eliminated from the
study

 comparing homogeneous groups

control for extraneous variables that are homogeneous
with respect to the extraneous variables

limitation: lowers the number of participants in the study

and, of course, limits the generalizability of the findings

 comparing homogeneous subgroups

form subgroups within each group that represent
all levels of the control (nonmanipulated) variable
controls for the variable and also permits the researcher to determine
whether the independent variable affects the dependent variable
differently at different levels of the control (nonmanipulated) variable

 factorial analysis of variance (FANOVA)

building the control (nonmanipulated)

variable into the research design
then use FANOVA to analyze the results to determine the effect
of the independent and control (nonmanipulated) variable on
the dependent variable, both separately and in combination

FANOVA allows the researcher to determine if there is an interaction between

the independent variable and the dependent variable such that the independent
variable operates differently at different levels of the independent variable
building it into the research design

 analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)

statistically adjusts initial group differences on a
dependent variable for initial differences on some other
variable related to performance on the dependent variable

removes initial differences so that the results can be

fairly compared as if the two groups started equally

 symbolic representation of the basic causal-comparative design

Group
(E)
(C)

Independent
Variable
(X)

Dependent
Variable
O
O

Where: E (experimental group); C (control group); X (independent variable); O (dependent variable)

Group
(E)
(C)

Independent
Variable
(X1)
(X2)

Dependent
Variable

O
O

Where: E (experimental group); C (control group); X (independent variable); O (dependent variable)

4. Data analysis and interpretation

researcher uses a variety of
descriptive and inferential statistics:
t-test
mean
standard deviation

analysis of variance

chi squared

 mean
the descriptive statistic indicating the average
performance of an individual or group on a measure of
some variable

 standard deviation

the descriptive statistic indicating the

spread of a set of scores around the mean

 t-test
the inferential statistic indicating whether the means of
two groups are significantly different from one another

 analysis of variance (ANOVA)

the inferential statistic indicating the presence of a
significant difference among the means of three or more
groups

 chi squared (2)

the inferential statistic indicating that there is a greater
than expected difference among group frequencies

Mini-Quiz
True

and false

causal-comparative studies attempt to

identify the cause-effect relationships;
correlational studies do not
True

causal-comparative studies typically involve two

(or more) groups and one independent variable,
whereas correlational studies typically involve
two (or more) variables and one group

True

causal-comparative studies involve

relation, whereas correlational
studies involve cause
False

oftentimes, causal-comparative research is

undertaken because the independent variable
could be manipulated but should not

True

one of the most important reasons for

conducting causal-comparative research is to
identify variables worthy of experimental
investigation
True

lack of control means that the

researcher can and should
manipulate the independent variable
False

each group in a causal-comparative

study represents a different
population
True

the more similar two groups are on all

relevant variables except the independent
variable, the stronger the study is
True

there is random assignment to treatment

groups from a single population in
causal-comparative studies
False

lack of randomization, manipulation of the

independent variable, and control are all
sources of weakness in a causal-comparative
design
True

matching, comparing homogenous groups or

subgroups, and covariate analysis are strategies
that enable researchers to overcome problems of
initial group differences on an extraneous variable

True

interpretation of the findings in a causalcomparative study requires considerable

caution because the cause may be the effect
and the effect may be the cause

True

extraneous variables or confounding

factors may be the real cause of both
the independent and dependent variables
True

 Fill

in the blank

groups selected for a causal-comparative

study which differ on some independent
variable and comparing them on some
dependent variable
comparison groups

 Fill

in the blank

unexplained variables that influence

a dependent variable
confounding factors
extraneous variables

 Fill

in the blank

a method for controlling extraneous variables

by comparing groups that are homogeneous
with respect to the extraneous variable

comparing homogeneous groups

 Fill

in the blank

a method for controlling extraneous variables

by forming subgroups within each group that
represent all levels of the control variable

comparing homogeneous subgroups

 Fill

in the blank

a statistical tool to determine the effects of the

independent variable and the control variable
on the dependent variable, both separately and
in combination

factorial analysis of variance

 Fill

in the blank

a statistical tool to adjust initial

group differences on variables
analysis of covariance

 Fill

in the blank

the descriptive statistic indicating

the average performance of a group
on a measure of some variable
mean

 Fill

in the blank

the descriptive statistic indicating

how clustered or spread out around
the mean a set of scores is
standard deviation

 Fill

in the blank

the inferential statistic determining

whether there is a significant difference
between the means of two groups
t-test

 Fill

in the blank

the inferential statistic determining whether

there is a significant difference between the
means of three or more groups

analysis of variance

 Fill

in the blank

the inferential statistic determining

whether there is a greater than expected
difference among group frequencies
chi squared

 Fill

in the blank

activities by which a researcher endeavors to

ensure that the results of a causal-comparative
study are not tainted by extraneous variables

control

This module has focused on...

causal-comparative studies
which identify the cause, or
reason, for existing differences in
the behavior or status of groups

The next module will focus on...

experimental studies
...which test hypotheses to establish
cause-and-effect relationships