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Ch 6:
SEMICONDUCTORS
CONTENTS:
1. INTRODUCTION
2. N- TYPE AND P-TYPE
3. PN- JUNCTION
4. DIODE AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS
5. DIODE CIRCUITS
6. ZENER DIODES
Development of Electronics
1st Generation: 2nd Generation:
Vacuum diodes
3rd Generation:
4th Generation:
LSI: 1 k -10 k
VLSI: 10 k - 1M
5th Generation:
6th Generation:
>1 billion Transistors
?
Can u name it?
Ultra Large Scale Integration: > 1M
CONDUCTORS
The flow of charge (current) results from the movement of
electrons.
In case of a metal the atom consists of outer most valence
electrons which are free to move and positively charged
ions which consist of nucleus and tightly bound electrons.
Because of thermal energy, the free electrons continually
move and collide with the stationary positive ion and as a
result of this collision the electron changes its direction of
motion.
The average distance between collisions is called the Mean
free path.
EXAMPLES:
A 10 6 m 2 , n 1.81 10 29 / m 3 , 10 3 m 2 / V s
a ) nq 1.81 10 29 1.6 10 19 10 3
2.9 x107 mhos / m
b) 1 / 1 / 2.9 107 3.45 10 8 m
c) R L / A
R 34.5m
1 / 2.9 107 10 6
Dr. G. AMARANATH, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus
Band Theory :
Intrinsic Semiconductor:
A two dimensional picture
of a semiconductor (Si or
Ge) has the following
crystal structure.
(a) 4 valence electrons
(b) Covalent bonds
(c) Bad conductor at low temp
Example 6.2
At 300 K , the intrinsic concentration of silicon is 1.5x 10 16
m-3. . The free electron mobility is 0.13 m 2 / V-s and the
hole mobility is 0.05m2 / V-s. What is the conductivity of
Si?
DOPED SEMICONDUCTORS
The conductivity of sc increases with increase in temp
since more electron hole pairs are produced.
To further increase the conductivity , a small amount of
impurity is added to the sc. These are known as doped
sc.
Usually a pentavalent ( arsenic or phosphorus) or
trivalent impurity ( Boron or Gallium) is added to the sc
such as silicon and germanium.
There are two types of doped sc: N-type and P type.
N type semiconductor.
Each impurity atom has 5
valence electrons, only four
of which are used for
covalent bonding.
There is one excess free
electron for each impurity
atom.
Since such an impurity
atom donates a free
electron, it is called donor
impurity and is responsible
for conductivity.
The majority carriers
Dr. G. AMARANATH, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus
P Type semiconductor:
Each impurity atom ( here
Boron) has 3 valence electrons,
hence each impurity atom
produces an excess hole.
This hole will accept a free
electron and is hence called
Acceptor impurity.
In P type sc, the majority
charge carriers are holes
and minority charge carriers
are electrons.
np n
2
i
.P-
Forward Bias:
Occurs when p- side (anode) is connected the positive terminal
of the battery and n-type (cathode) is connected to the negative
terminal.
With a battery connected like this, the holes in the p- side and
electrons in the n side are pushed towards the junction.
Hence the width of the depletion region decreases.
The depletion region is narrow enough that electrons can cross
the junction and inject into the p side(left) where they
recombine with holes and similarly holes cross over the junction
and inject into the n side (right).
Net result is hole current and electron current are both to the
right.
Dr. G. AMARANATH, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus
Reverse Bias:
Forward bias
Reverse bias
From eqn 1,
So
Diode Behaviour:
I-V characteristics
For a case when diode is FB (i >0,v>0) in Ge and Si
Temperature dependance of
diode I-V characteristics:
For a given voltage v, diode
current >> as T >>.
Solid curve is i-v characteristic of
a diode at temp Ta
and dashed curve is at Tb where
Tb > Ta
If v=v2 for Ta then i=i1 and i =i2 for
Tb > Ta
To maintain current I = i1 when
temp >> from Ta to Tb then diode
voltage should be lowered from v2
to v1.
Dr. G. AMARANATH, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus
In mathematical terms:
DIODE CIRCUITS:
The relation between i and v in a diode is :
/VT
i I S (e
By KVL: v1 = v+iR
Diode
circuit
Dr. G. AMARANATH,
BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus
2 x300
0.5 x10 9
v 0.035V
v
ln
1
9
11,586
1x10
I S Tb 2
Tb Ta
/ 10 I S Ta
1
I S 290 2 10 10 10 10 3 5mA
2
2 290 10 10 3
v VT ln i / is 1
ln
1
3
11,586 5 10
v 0.726volts
Dr. G. AMARANATH, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus
(oc)
RULES:
1. If current through an ON (FB) diode is calculated to be
non-positive, that means we assumed wrong; it should
have been OFF.
2. Then change assumptions and repeat analysis.
3. Similarly if voltage across an OFF (RB) diode is
calculated to be positive, then our assumption was
incorrect. It should have been assumed ON (FB).
4. Again redo analysis.
5. If all diodes assumed to be ON are found to have
positive currents and if all diodes assumed to be OFF
are found to have non-positive voltages then our
assumptions were right.
Dr. G. AMARANATH, BITS Pilani, Dubai Campus
Diode as a clipper:
Clipper circuit
Assume D is ON (ie D is sc). The
circuit is
And by KCL
uppose if the input voltage was a sinusoid wave with an amplitude of 6volts then
e output voltage v0 when plotted will be clipped as shown: