Essentials of

Understanding Psychology
9th Edition
By Robert Feldman
PowerPoints by Kimberly Foreman
Revised for 9th Ed by Cathleen Hunt
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011

Chapter 8:
Motivation and Emotion

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MODULE 24: Explaining Motivation

How does motivation direct and energize behavior?

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Motivation
Factors that direct and energize the behavior of humans
and other organisms

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Instinct Approaches
Born to Be Motivated
Instincts
Inborn patterns of behavior that are biologically determined
rather than learned
Psychologists do not agree on what, or how many, primary instincts
exist

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Drive-Reduction Approaches
Satisfying Our Needs
Suggest that a lack of some basic biological requirement
such as water produces a drive to obtain that requirement
Drive
Motivation tension, or arousal, that energized behavior to fulfill a need
Primary drives
Secondary drives

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Drive-Reduction Approaches
Homeostasis
Bodys tendency to maintain a steady internal state
Underlies primary drives
Uses feedback loops
Need for food, water, stable body temperature, and sleep

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Arousal Approaches
Beyond Drive Reduction
Seek to explain behavior in which the goal is to maintain or
increase excitement
People vary widely in the optimal level of arousal they seek out

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Incentive Approaches
Motivations Pull
Suggest that motivation stems from the desire to obtain
valued external goals, or incentives
Many psychologists believe that the internal drives proposed by
drive-reduction theory work in tandem with the external
incentives of incentive theory to push and pull behavior

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Cognitive Approaches
The Thoughts Behind Motivation
Suggest that motivation is a product of peoples thoughts,
expectations, and goals
Intrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation

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Maslows Hierarchy
Ordering Motivational Needs
Suggests that before more sophisticated, higher-order
needs can be met, certain primary needs must be satisfied
Abraham Maslow
Self-actualization
State of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest
potential

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Maslows Hierarchy

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MODULE 25: Human Needs and Motivation:

Eat, Drink, and Be Daring
What biological and social factors underlie hunger?
What are the varieties of sexual behavior?
How are needs relating to achievement, affiliation, and
power motivation exhibited?

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The Motivation Behind Hunger and Eating

Obesity
of people in the United States
Body Mass Index (BMI)
Based on ratio of weight to height

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The Motivation Behind Hunger and Eating

Biological Factors in the Regulation of Hunger
Hypothalamus
Monitors glucose levels
Lateral hypothalamus
Ventromedial hypothalamus

Weight set point

Metabolism

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The Motivation Behind Hunger and Eating

Social Factors in Eating

Societal rules
Cultural influences
Individual habits
Operant conditioning
Associating food with comfort and consolation

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The Motivation Behind Hunger and Eating

The Roots of Obesity
Oversensitivity to external eating cues
Insensitivity to internal hunger cues
Higher weight set points
Leptin

Fat Cells in the Body

Rate of weight gain during the first four months of life is related to
being overweight during later childhood

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Eating Disorders
Anorexia Nervosa
Refusal to eat while denying that their behavior and appearance
are unusual

Bulimia
Disorder in which people binge on large quantities of food
Purging
Exercise bulimia
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Brains of People with Eating Disorders

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Dieting and Losing Weight Successfully

There is no easy route to weight
control
Keep track of what you eat and
what you weigh
Eat big foods
Bulky and heavy but low in
calories
Cut out television
Exercise

Decrease the influence of

external, social stimuli on your
eating behavior
Avoid fad diets
Avoid taking diet pills
There is no magic pill
Maintain good eating habits
Set reasonable goals

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Sexual Motivation
Androgens
Male sex hormones

Estrogens and Progesterone

Female sex hormones
Greatest output occurs during
ovulation

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Sexual Motivation
Masturbation: Solitary Sex
Sexual self-stimulation, often using the hand to rub the genitals

Heterosexuality
Sexual attraction and behavior directed to the other sex

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Sexual Motivation
Premarital Sex
Double standard
Dramatic change in public opinion

Marital Sex
Frequency varies
Extramarital sex

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Sexual Motivation
Homosexuality
Sexually attracted to members of their own sex
Gay
Lesbian

Bisexuality
Sexually attracted to people of the same sex and the other sex

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Sexual Motivation
Transsexualism
Transsexuals
People who believe they were born with the body of the other gender
Some seek sex-change operations

Transgenderism
Transsexuals and people who view themselves as a third gender,
transvestites, or others who believe that traditional male-female gender
classification inadequately characterizes themselves

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The Needs for Achievement, Affiliation, and Power

Need for Achievement
Stable, learned characteristic in which a person obtains
satisfaction by striving for and attaining a level of excellence

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The Needs for Achievement, Affiliation, and Power

Need for Affiliation: Striving for Friendship
An interest in establishing and maintaining relationships with
other people
Gender is a great determinant of how much time is spent with friends

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The Needs for Achievement, Affiliation, and Power

Need for Power: Striving for Impact on Others
Tendency to seek impact, control, or influence over others and
to be seen as a powerful individual
More apt to belong to organizations and seek office

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MODULE 26:
Understanding Emotional Experiences
What are emotions, and how do we experience them?
What are the functions of emotions?
What are the explanations for emotions?
How does nonverbal behavior relate to the expression of
emotions?
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Emotions
Feelings that generally have both physiological and
cognitive elements and that influence behavior

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The Functions of Emotions

Preparing us for action
Shaping our future behavior
Helping us interact more effectively with others

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Hierarchy of Emotions

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Determining the Range of Emotions:

Labeling Our Feelings
There are various ways of categorizing emotions
Most researchers suggest that basic emotions include:

Happiness
Anger
Fear
Sadness
Disgust

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The Roots of Emotions

The James-Lange Theory
Do gut reactions equal emotions?
Emotions are a result of physiological changes that produce
specific sensations
The brain interprets these sensations as specific kinds of
emotional experiences

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The Roots of Emotions

The Cannon-Bard Theory
Assumes that both physiological arousal and the emotional
experience are produced simultaneously by the same nerve
stimulus, which emanates from the thalamus in the brain

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The Roots of Emotions

The Schachter-Singer Theory
Emphasizes that we identify the emotion we are experiencing
by observing our environment and comparing ourselves with
others
Supports a cognitive view of emotions

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Theories of Emotion

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The Roots of Emotions

Contemporary Perspectives on Neuroscience of Emotions
Specific patterns of biological arousal are associated with
individual emotions.
Amygdala
Provides a link between the perception of an emotion-producing
stimulus and the recall of that stimulus later
Hippocampus
Aids in the consolidation of memories

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The Roots of Emotions

Making Sense of the Multiple Perspectives on Emotion
Emotions are complex phenomena
Encompass both biological and cognitive aspects
No single theory has been able to explain fully all the facets of
emotional experience

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Six Primary Emotions

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Do People in All Cultures Express Emotion Similarly?

Facial-affect program
Assumed to be universally present at birth
Analogous to a computer program that is turned on when a
particular emotion is experienced
Displays an appropriate expression

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Do People in All Cultures Express Emotion Similarly?

Facial-feedback hypothesis
Not only reflects emotional experience, but also helps
determine how people experience and label emotions
Some theoreticians have suggested that facial expressions are necessary
for an emotion to be experienced

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