Chapter2:

Lithospheric Mechanics

This presentation contains illustrations from

Allen and Allen (2005 )
and Press et al. (2004)

Physical State of the

Lithosphere
Key Concepts
Surface Forces
Local Isostasy
Flexural isostasy
Thermal conductivity
Thermal Expansion
Heat transfer: A special case
Rock Rheology (2.3)
Relevant mantle rheological behavior
Rheology of continental crust
Elastic-perfectly plastic
Strain hardening and strain softening

Key Concepts
Lithostatic stress(CA), deviatoric stress(TA), uniaxial
stress, plane stress
bulk modulus(MB),flexural rigidity(JTB)
thermal conductivity(AD), geotherm(SE)
Geoid(HF), Bouguer anomalies(TJH)
Isostasy(CJ)
diffusion and dislocation creep(AL), Byerlees Law(CP)
(one per student --- e-mail me your answer written in
PowerPoint slide one illustration and two sentences

Surface (not surficial!) forces in geology

We measure these forces of gravity and reaction to
gravity not in terms of Newtons but by using the
concept of stress, in Newtons per meter square, or
Pascals. (See structural geology notes).
What is atmospheric pressure?
What is the hydrostatic state of stress?

Lithostatic stress

1 cu. meter of water weighs 1000 kg x 10m/s2 or 10000 Newtons (N)

1 cu meter creates 10000N/m2 (Pa) of pressure at its bas
10 meters of water depth produces 100000 Pa (1 atm) of 0.1 MPa,
that is every 10 m you dive down, pressure increases by 1 atm.
1000 vertically stacked 1-m-cubes of water weigh 10 million Newtons
1000 m (1 km) of stacked 1-m-cubes of water create 10 million
Pascals (Pa) or 10 MPa at its base

Lithostatic stress

If the above is true, then under 1 km of mud (2200 kg/m3) there

should be about 22 MPa of pressure then under 30 km of granite
(2670 kg/m3) there should be 801 MPa, or .8 GPa
The rule to convert density into MPa of pressure per km is to
take the density of the material in g/cc, move the decimal point
over one space and change the units to MPa
Other useful conversions to know are:
To get MPa from psi mutliply Pounds/sq in by 0.689 x 10 ^-2
To get psi from MPa multiply MPa by 145.05
To convert to MegaPascals.... Divide by 1000000 Pa per 1 MPa

Lithostatic stress

If you think you understand the previous slide, then answer the following
question:
On Planet Zog the average density of the 10 km-thick crust is 2500 kg m^-3 .
Acceleration due to gravity is 3.2 m s^-2 . What is the pressure at the base of
the crust?
A. 80 MegaPascals
B. 80 Newtons
C. 800 Newtons
D. 3 GigaPascals
E. 30 Gigapascals
F. None of the above

 Lithostatic stress is responsible for the increase of pressure

with overall depth in the earth but it is the differential stress
that creates the faults and folds.

 What is the vertical lithostatic stress gradient in

granitic crust? What is the vertical stress gradient in
the first 2 km of the ocean?

Faults can develop:

min
max (Side view)

max
min

min
min

(Side View)

min
max

max (Birds Eye

View)

max
min

Brittle faults can develop:

min
max (Side view)

max
min

min
min
(Side View)
min

max

max (Birds Eye

View)

max
min

Sea of
Galilea
Dead Sea

What is the direction of directed pressure

(maximum principal stress direction)?
How many orientations of faults can be
generated for the same directed pressure
direction??

Physical State of the

Lithosphere

Key Concepts
Surface Forces
Local Isostasy
Flexural isostasy
Thermal conductivity
Thermal Expansion
Heat transfer: A special case
Rock Rheology
Relevant mantle rheological behavior
Rheology of continental crust
Elastic-perfectly plastic
Strain hardening and strain softening

Surface Forces (Pressure)LOCAL ISOSTASY

Depth of compensation

Isostasy or Archimedes Principle

states that the crust, mantle can float above the underlying material
If the crust and mantle float then there exists a depth at which
pressuer above and pressure below are equal.
This surface is known as the compensation depth

General recommendations for local

isostatic calculations
(1) Define a surface of compensation
(2) Define a reference column of crust and mantle
(3) Compare the weight of the reference column with the unknown
(4) Simplify algebra in terms of two unknowns
(4) Keep physical units the same
See syllabus (Tuesday, 19 September) for elaborated examples

Isostasy homework due Thursday, 21

2006
Derive the relation between basin-floor depth and
Moho depth.
Assuming that underneath Lake Baikal the continental
crust and mantle is homogeneous, calculate the
expected thickness of continental crust.
Same for the continental shelf of the Gulf of Mexico
Show all your work type it up and e-mail it to me

Physical State of the

Lithosphere

Key Concepts
Surface Forces
Local Isostasy
Flexural isostasy
Thermal conductivity
Thermal Expansion
Heat transfer: A special case
Rock Rheology
Relevant mantle rheological behavior
Rheology of continental crust
Elastic-perfectly plastic
Strain hardening and strain softening

Flexure of the lithosphere

The outer skin of the earth down to depths where

the temperature is cool enough and rock properties
permit the earth can be visualized to be effectively
elastic (e.g., rubber ball) over long periods of time,
i.e., hundreds of millions of years.

 A conclusion is that mountain belts will not sag over

time but will maintain their mechanical strength
indefinitely for practical purposes. A measure of the
strength of the crust is how much it bends to a given
load. This value is known as the flexural rigidity (D
units of Nm)

10

23

Nm is equivalent to about 34
km of elastic thickness (Te)
or moderately strong elastic
lithosphere

One view on flexure in basins

Use local isostasy as a reference

Assume stationary conditions
Deviation from this reference is a measure of
internal strength balanced against an applied load

Measure of elasticity
If the load is exceptionally narrow and small then the lithosphere
will appear (infinitely) very strong because it does not give way at
all to the load!

But, if we use the other extreme case . the case of a weight that is very wide (i.e. >
1000 km)..?????
When it is very wide the condition reaches that of local isostasy and all the weight
pushing down is balanced by the reaction of the mantle pushing up.

+
=

+
=

+
=

+ +

+ +

+
=

+ +

Finite (reasonable and not

extreme) geological load

versus infinite (very wide) load

Maximum depth of subsidence of the base of the crust in the case that
the load is very wide and that hydrostatic compensation is local i.e. some
the elastic lithosphere has no internal strength.

Now compare the case where the load is

relatively narrow.
g ( m href oc hoc w hw )

qa g ((hw href ) w oc hoc )

Point load

versus infinite (very wide) load

Now compare the case where the load is

relatively narrow and the strength of
the lithosphere becomes apparent.
Point load

versus infinite (very wide) load

hw
hoc
hm

g ( m hm oc hoc w hw ) strength
(weight)

-( Strength of
elastic lithosphere)

href
hoc
=

g (href w oc hoc )

Downward directed invisible

load creates space that fills
with water and adds more
vertical load
Use reference at infinity
(very far away) and pressure
at level of compensation.

At level of compensation
pressures are in equilibrium.

Level of compensation
g(h.rhom + hw. rhow + w .rhom)

(At infinity)
g(h.rhom + hw. rhow + w .rhom) =
(Under load)
qa (Point load) + g(w.rhow +
hw.rhow + h.rhom)-internal
resistance to bending

g(h.rhom + hw. rhow + w .rhom) =

qa (Point load) + g(w+hw) rhow
+ h.rhom) internal resistance
to bending

If there is internal strength in

the lithosphere, then hw will
not be as deep as it should be
because the oceanic
lithosphere resists!

(Under load)

(At infinity)
g(h.rhom + hw. rhow + w .rhom) =
internal resistance to bending +

qa (Point load) + g( (w+hw).rhow +

h.rhom) internal resistance to
bending
qa (Point load)

g (rhom-rhow) w

d 4w
d 2w
D 4 P 2 gw qa ( x )
dx
dx

Equation 2.28

Equation 2.28

Physical State of the

Lithosphere
Key Concepts
Surface Forces
Local Isostasy
Flexural isostasy
Thermal conductivity
Thermal Expansion
Heat transfer: A special case
Rock Rheology
Relevant mantle rheological behavior
- Rheology of continental crust
Elastic-perfectly plastic
Strain hardening and strain softening

Thermal conductivity measures how

well

for a given temperature gradient, conductive heat

transfers moves through rock. Heat moves from higher
temperature to areas of lower temperature.
Halite: 7 kW/m/K
Shale: 3 kW /m/K

Thermal conductivity
The efficiency of that transfer is the thermal
conductivity. So, for a given temperature gradient
dT/dz (continental or oceanic geotherms) the amount
of heat being passed across any given portion of the
earths surface (heat flux-Q) per unit time will depend
on the coefficient of thermal conductivity (K).
dT
Fouriers Law:
dz
Q for continents is ~ 60 mW/m^2 or 60W/1000 m^2
Q K

Q for continents is ~ 80 mW/m^2

Geotherm

Temperature variation with depth in solid crust indicates

how much heat is flows from the mantle, and how much
heat is generated within the crust.
Q0
A 2
T T0
z
z
K
2K
Q- heat flow
K- conductivity
A- internal heat generation
Z -depth

Geotherm
Temperature

oceanic

continent

Heat Production versus depth

Heat production at surface (Hs )is maximum

H eat production = Hs exp (-z/ar)

Heat production

Z
Depth
(km)

Q0 70mW / m3
A0 2.5 10-6Wm 3
ar 10km

K 3W / m / oC

Geotherms

Surface heat flow observations indicate that heat flow increases

linearly with the heat production of surface rocks. This is
mathematically accomplished by assuming that heat production
decreases with depth in an exponential manner.
y

Q0
A0 ar2
ar
T T0
z
1 e

K
K

ar is the depth at which heat

production is halved
A0 is the surface heat production

Global heat production

Continental surface heat flow comes about 50% from
the mantle (U,K,Th) and about 50% from radioactive
sources.
Heat flow was x2 what it is now, about 3 billion years
ago
Oceanic heat flow largely depends on thermal age of
the lithosphere and not on the radioactivity

Sampling thermal conductivity

On board R/V Joides Resolution, Leg 150 New

Jersey Margin, US Atlantic Coast, B. Hoppie
(right) (MNSU, Mankato), C. Fulthorpe(left)
(UT Austin)

Thermal conductivity

We can measure thermal conductivity with respect to

standards as you can see in this overhead of a thermal
conductivity measurements on board Leg ODP 150 New
Jersey Margin in the summer of 1993. People are (L
toR) Bryce Hoppie and Craig Fulthorpe. These needles
contain heaters and temperature sensors. These
needles measure the speed at which the temperature
changes over time to calculate the conductivity of the
material into which they are inserted.

Physical State of the

Lithosphere
Key Concepts
Surface Forces
Local Isostasy
Flexural isostasy
Thermal conductivity
Thermal Expansion
Heat transfer: A special case
Rock Rheology (2.3)
Relevant mantle rheological behavior
Rheology of continental crust
Elastic-perfectly plastic
Strain hardening and strain softening

Thermal Expansion
At a constant pressure, the average silicate rock will
expand 1/100,000 th of its entire length for every
degree that it goes up in temperature. This of course
affects the density of the rock.
The amount that the rock contracts or expands, at an
assumed constant pressure, for a given temperature
change is known as the thermal expansion coefficient,
or the volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion,
written as v

Thermal expansion

100,000 m * 10^-5 * 1K = 1m/K

Thermal contraction
The converse is true as well. for every degree that
temperature drops, the lithosphere will contract
1/100,000 th of its entire length

Thermal contraction

O km

125
km

Start (at
time=0)
1300

After 200 my
1300

Thermal contraction
So, a 125-km piece of mantle that is initially at, say
1300K, and which then cools by an average of about
650K will shrink by how much ..?

Choose an answer
(a) 2km
(b) 4 km
(c) 10 km
(d) 20 km
(e) none of the above

Answer
125,000 m * 650C * 10^-5 = 812 m

Isostatic consequences of cooling mantle

If the mantle contracts as it cools it also becomes
denser for doing so.

Final density = original density * thermal expansion

coefficient (temperature drop)

final start (1 v T )

Physical State of the

Lithosphere

Key Concepts
Surface Forces
Local Isostasy
Flexural isostasy
Thermal conductivity
Thermal Expansion
Heat transfer: A special case
Rock Rheology
Relevant mantle rheological behavior
Rheology of continental crust
Elastic-perfectly plastic
Strain hardening and strain softening

Time-dependent heat conduction

We observe that
(1) heat flow decreases away from the mid-ocean ridges
as a function of age and
(2) water depth increases as a function of age

Heat flow versus age

Plate Model for Sea-floor spreadin

Parsons and Sclater

Temperature and thickness versus age

Physical State of the

Lithosphere
Key Concepts
Surface Forces
Local Isostasy
Flexural isostasy
Thermal conductivity
Thermal Expansion
Heat transfer: A special case
Rock Rheology
Relevant mantle rheological behavior
- Rheology of continental crust
Elastic-perfectly plastic
Strain hardening and strain softening

At least 6 factors control how rock

deforms
e.g. at shallow depth a rock may
fracture whereas at depth it may
flow.
Factors are:
(1) rock type
(2) Confining and directed pressure
(3) temperature
(4) Fluids
(5) Time
(6) Rate of deformation

Physical State of the

Lithosphere
Key Concepts
Surface Forces
Local Isostasy
Flexural isostasy
Thermal conductivity
Thermal Expansion
Heat transfer: A special case
Rock Rheology
Relevant mantle rheological behavior
Rheology of continental crust
Elastic-perfectly plastic
Strain hardening and strain softening

Mantle viscosity
Models
Diffusion creep
Very Low stress
Newtonian fluid
Atoms diffuse

v V ( fluid )

Viscosity depends on stress and temperature

stress

T ( K )

Mantle viscosity
High stress creep
Disclocation creep
Model for mantle plasticity

V f
& Ae

Qc
RT

Power Law Creep

Q is activation energy
A is a creep mechanism parameter

Dislocation Creep
Temperature-activated creep
Movement of mantle by microfractures at the
subcrystal scale and synchronous healing of these
imperfections

Physical State of the

Lithosphere
Key Concepts
Surface Forces
Local Isostasy
Flexural isostasy
Thermal conductivity
Thermal Expansion
Heat transfer: A special case
Rock Rheology
Relevant mantle rheological behavior
Rheology of continental crust
Elastic-perfectly plastic
Strain hardening and strain softening

Rheology of continental crust

Byerlees Law
Linear relation between shear stress and normal stress
for rock strength
Shear
stress

Normal stress

Physical State of the

Lithosphere
Key Concepts
Surface Forces
Local Isostasy
Flexural isostasy
Thermal conductivity
Thermal Expansion
Heat transfer: A special case
Rock Rheology
Relevant mantle rheological behavior
Rheology of continental crust
Elastic-perfectly plastic
Strain hardening and strain softening

Elastic-Plastic model for breaking Rock

strain
stress

strain

Strain hardening

strain
stress

strain

Strain softening

strain
stress

strain

Elastic-plastic

stress

strain

Dislocation Creep (AL)-

Thermally activated deformation that occurs at

relatively higher shear stress than diffusion creep.
Diffusion creep happens at very small scales (atomic
and molecular), and the crystalline solid flows as a
Newtonian fluid. Dislocation creep happens at larger
scales and causes the solid to exhibit non-Newtonian
behavior because of the higher shear stress.

Elastic-plastic

stress

strain

Elastic-plastic

stress

strain

Elastic-plastic

stress

strain

Diffusion Creep (RR)

Diffusion is the propagation of cracks in a crystal
structure in response to stress where the parting goes
from an area of high stress to low stress. Diffusion
Creep is the movement of atoms along partings from
areas of high stress to low stress creating foliations.

Lithostatic Stress C.A.

The stress applied to a rock in equal directions due to
the weight of an overlying rock column. At the surface
of the earth the lithostatic stress would be zero,but
as you move further below the earth's surface the
weight of the overlying rock causes an increase in
stress.

Source: http://myweb.cwpost.liu.edu/vdivener/notes/stress-st

Bouguer Anomalies (TJH)

The difference between measurements of gravity
based on the value used by a theoretical model of what
it should be at that latitudinal position, and a different
value that compensate for latitude, elevation, free-air
corrections, and *Bouguer correction.
*Developed be Pierre Bouguer proved that gravity
differs with elevation

Bulk Modulus (K) (MB)

The ratio of pressure change (P) to volume change (V)

K = P/ V

This describes a materials ability to resist changes in volume

Deviatoric Stress (TA)

A condition in which the stress components operating at a point in a

body are not the same in every direction.
Is the difference between the mean stress (Sum of stress in three
directions divided by 3) and total stress

Geotherm (SE):

The variation of temperature with depth.

Major Influences
Thermal Conductivity
Concentration of Radiogenic Elements
Temperature at Surface
Proximity to Magma or other Heat Sources

Eugene Island Field

Gulf of Mexico

Thermal Conductivity (AD)

Heat transfer is achieved by processes of:
1) Conduction- a diffusive process in which kinetic energy is
transferred by intermolecular collisions. Conduction is the
primary thermal process in the lithosphere.
2) Convection- requires motion of the medium to transmit heat.
Convection of heat from the core is the principal thermal
process of the mantle.
3) Electromagnetic radiation- only important in determining
surface heat budget, not the internal heat budget

Fouriers Law
Fouriers Law is the central
relation for conductive heat
transport
It states that the heat flux
Q is directly proportional to
the temperature gradient

Q = -K (dT / dy)
K = coefficient of thermal
conductivity
T = temperature at a given point
in the medium
y = coordinate in the direction of
the temperature variation

Continental Crust

Generally, regions of high heat

flow correspond to active
volcanic zones or regions of
extensional tectonics.
Areas of continental collision are
related to low or normal surface
heat flows.

Oceanic Crust

The surface heat flow of the

oceans is related to the age of
the seafloor rather than the
concentration of radioisotopes.
Newly created oceanic crust
cools by conduction as it travels
away from the mid-ocean ridge.
About 60% of the Earths heat
loss takes place through the
ocean floor.

One-Dimensional Heat Conduction

Temperature change of a piece

of lithosphere has 3
components:
These components are a basal
heat flow term, an internal
heat generation term, and an
advective term

Advective Heat Flow

Advective heat flow can be one of two things.
It can be movement towards the surface associated
with downcutting action of erosion, or the velocity of
deposition.

Uniaxial stress(MS)
Uniaxial stress is stress in only one direction and zero
stress in the perpendicular direction. This XYZ graph
shows that there is only stress in the Y direction, both
X and Z directions show a stress of Zero.

(TB) Definition taken from:

http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexural_rigidity
Flexural rigidity is defined as the force couple required to bend a
rigid structure to a unit curvature.
The thin lithosphere plates which cover the surface of the Earth
are subject to flexure, when a load or force is applied to them. On
a geological timescale, the lithosphere behaves elastically and can
therefore bend under loading by mountain chains, volcanoes and so
on.
The flexure of the plate depends on:
The plate thickness
The elastic properties of the plate
The applied load or force

North pole is up & black line runs through Greenwich

Geoid (HF)
GEOID a surface on which the earths gravitational forces
are equal everywhere and coincides with mean sea-level.
Based on these concepts:
- sea covered the earth
- no disturbing forces like winds, tides, ocean currents, ect.
- the force of gravity is perpendicular to the geoid
everywhere.
- Ellipsoid represents the bulk shape of the earth.
-Geoid departs above or below the ellipsoid
resulting in a smoother representation of the
earths actual surface.
For more info: http://www.answers.com/topic/geoid,
http://solid_earth.ou.edu/notes/geoid/earths_geoid.htm

H. FOLEY