BAB 1

JF302
MATERIAL TECHNOLOGY 1

Material Structure and

Binary Alloy System

1.0 Material Structure and Element

Periodical Table (EPT)
1.11 Terminology
a. Atom

The smallest component of an element having thechemical properties

of the element, consisting of a nucleuscontaining combinations of
neutrons and protons and one or more electrons bound to the nucleus
by electrical attraction; the number of protons determines the identity of
the element.

b. Element

Consists of only one kind of atom,

Cannot be broken down into a simpler type of matter by either physical or
chemical means, and
can exist as either atoms (e.g. argon) or molecules (e.g., nitrogen).

c. Mixture

Consists of two or more different elements and/or compounds

physically intermingled,
Can be separated into its components by physical means, and
Often retains many of the properties of its components.

d. Compound

Consists of atoms of two or more different elements bound

together,
Can be broken down into a simpler type of matter (elements) by
chemical means (but not by physical means),

1.12 Atomic number and atomic mass

Atomic number
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Since atoms are
electrically neutral, the numbers of protons equal the number of
electrons in an atom.
Atomic number = Number of protons = Number of electrons

Atomic Mass
The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of
an atom.
Mass number = Number of protons + Number neutrons

1.1.3 Total number of atomic orbits/Shells

The electronic structure of an atom shows/tells us how the

electrons in an atom are arranged in their electron shells. The rule
below applies;
The 1st shell can contain a maximum of 2 electrons.
The 1st shell is the shell closest to the nucleus

The 2nd shell can contain a maximum of 8 electrons.

The 3rd shell can contain a maximum of 8 electrons
Electron

Shell
2nd shell
3rd shell

ELEMENT PERIODIC TABLE

1.1.4 Elements sequence in EPT

Each element in the periodic table is characterized by its atomic

number.
An element is composed of atoms. All the atoms in one element are
identical and similar. All elements in periodic table are arranged in
increasing atomic number.
Horizontal columns in the periodic table are call groups. Vertical
rows are called Periods. There are 8 groups (Groups I-VIII) and 7
periods.
Elements in Groups I-III are metals(except for Boron) and Groups VVIII consist mainly of non-metals. Elements in Group IV contain both
metals and non-metals.
All elements in the same GROUP have the same number of valence
electrons.

1.1.4 Elements sequence in EPT

Atomic
Atomic
number
number

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Atomic
Atomic
mass
mass
Element
Element

Nitrogen
2:5

Symb
Symb
ol
ol

Electron
Electron
configuration
configuration

1.15 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

a. Simple Cube

b. Body Cubic Centre

8 atom at the corner of cube x 1/8 = 1

atom

8 atom at the corner of

cube x 1/8 = 1 atom

1 atom at the middle of cube

atom
total

EXAMPLE: SC= table salt

(NaCl)

= 1

= 2 atom

EXAMPLE : BCC
=
chromium, Molybdenum,
titanium and tungsten.
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c. Face Cubic Center (FCC)

EXAMPLE: FCC
=
aluminum, Cuprum, GOLD and
nikel.

8 atom at the corner of cube x 1/8

=
1 atom
6 atom at the face of cube x
= 3 atom
total

= 4 atom

d. Hexagonal closed packed(FCC)

EXAMPLE: HCP
=
Berilium, magnesium and
zink.

12 atom at the corner of atom x

1/6 =
2 atom
2 atom at the face of cube x 1/2
= 1 atom
3 atom at the middle = 3 atom
total

=6

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1.1.6 Crystallization process

a)

b)

c)

d)

Crystals - A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose

constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are arranged in an orderly
repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions.
Lattice The smallest group of atoms showing the characteristic
lattice structure of a particular metal is known as a unit cell. It is the
building block of crystal, and a single crystal can have many unit
cell.
Grain - A given block of metal may contain millions of individual
crystals, called grains. Each grain has its own unique lattice
orientation.
Grain boundary - When the block is cooled from the molten state
and begin to solidify, nucleation of individual crystals occurs at
random positions and orientations throughout the liquid. As the
crystals grow the finally interfere with each other, forming at their
interface a surface defect a grain boundary.

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1.1.7 Type of bonds

a) Ionic bond / electrovalent
One electron is completely
transferred.
The
electrostatic attraction is
what holds the iron together.

Na

Cl

Atoms lose or gain electrons to attain a complete outer shell of electrons.

An ionic bond is formed when electrons are lost and gained by two or more
atoms.
When atoms lose electrons they become positive ions
When atomsgain electrons they become negative ions
Ionic bonds are formed between metals and non - metals.

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b) Covalent bond

Cl

Cl
(

a) Cl2 .

O
(b) O2.

Covalent chemical bonds involve the sharing of a pair of valence

electrons by two atoms, in contrast to the transfer of electrons in
ionic bonds. Such bonds lead to stable molecules if they share
electrons in such a way as to create a noble gas configuration for
each atom.
Hydrogen gas forms the simplest covalent bond in the diatomic
hydrogen molecule. The halogens such as chlorine also exist as
diatomic gases by forming covalent bonds

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c) Metallic bond

The properties of metals suggest that their atoms possess strong

bonds, yet the ease of conduction of heat and electricity suggest that
electrons can move freely in all directions in a metal. The general
observations give rise to a picture of "positive ions in a sea of
electrons" to describe metallic bonding. The metallic bond accounts
for many physical characteristics of metals, such as strength,
malleability, ductility, conduction of heat and electricity.

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1.2 Solidification of Metal and Alloy

1.2.1 Solidification phase

(d)Grain
(b)Dendri
(c)Dendrite
te
When the temperature of the liquid metal has dropped sufficiently below its
(a)Necleus

freezing point, stable aggregates or nuclei appear spontaneously at various points

in the liquid. As cooling continues, more atoms tend to freeze, and they may attach
themselves to already existing nuclei or form new nuclei of their own. Each nucleus
grows by the attraction of atoms from the liquid into its space lattice. Crystal
growth continues in three dimensions, the atoms attaching themselves in certain
preferred directions, usually along the axes of a crystal. This gives rise to a
characteristic treelike structure which is called dendrite. Since each nucleus is
formed by chance, the crystal axes are pointed at random and the dendrites will
grow in different directions in each crystal. Finally, as the amount of liquid
decreases, the gaps between the arms of the dendrite will be filled and the growth
of the dendrite will be mutually obstructed by that of its neighbors.
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1.2.2 Differentiation between metal and alloy

Pure Metal is made up of only one element ( Periodic table of

elements ).
Alloy is a mixture of metals, or metal and non-metal, for
example Brass is an alloy which is made up of copper and zinc,
two different elements.
Both alloy and metal are good conductors of heat, but alloy
has a relatively high melting point when compared to that of
metals

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1.2.3 Formation of solid solution

A solid solution is formed when two metals are completely soluble

in liquid state and also completely soluble in solid state. In other
words, when homogeneous mixtures of two or more kinds of
atoms (of metals) occur in the solid state, they are known as solid
solutions. The more abundant atomic form is referred as solvent
and the less abundant atomic form is referred as solute.
For example sterling silver (92.5 percent silver and the remainder
copper) is a solid solution of silver and copper. In this case silver
atoms are solvent atoms whereas copper atoms are solute atoms.
Another example is brass.
Brass is a solid solution of copper (64 percent) and zinc (36
percent). In this case copper atoms are solvent atoms whereas
zinc atoms are solute atoms.

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1.2.4 Substitutional and Interstitial Solid Solution

Substitutional solid solutions.
If the atoms of the solvent or parent metal are replaced in the
crystal lattice by atoms of the solute metal then the solid solution
is known as substitutional solid solution. For example, copper
atoms may substitute for nickel atoms without disturbing the
F.C.C. structure of nickel.

(a)

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1.2.4 Substitutional and Interstitial Solid Solution

(b) Interstitial solid solutions.

In interstitial solid solutions, the solute atom does not displace a

solvent atom, but rather it enters one of the holes or interstices
between the solvent atoms. An excellent example is iron-carbon
system

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1.2.5 Solidification of pure metal and alloy according to

the cooling curve
a)

Solidification of pure metals

A pure metal solidifies at one fixed temperature, a fact which

can be checked by plotting a cooling curve.
A cooling curve may be obtained by melting a small
amount of a metal and recording the temperature drop at
suitable time intervals as this metal solidifies (the metal
must be allowed to cool very slowly i.e. under equilibrium
conditions) .
We can then plot a graph of temperature against time to
give us the cooling curve for that particular metal

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1.2.5 Solidification of pure metal and alloy according to

the cooling curve
a)

Solidification of pure metals

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1.2.5 Solidification of pure metal and alloy according to

the cooling curve
a)

Solidification of pure metals

At temperatures above and below line "ab" the curve falls
smoothly.
When the solidification temperature is reached, the temperature
remains constant for some time thus giving rise to the step "ab" in
the curve.
Down to "a"the temperature of the liquid drops in a regular
manner as heat is being lost to the surroundings at a nearly
constant rate.
The step "ab" is due to latent heat. This leads to zero change in
temperature until the last drop of liquid has solidified.
After no more latent heat is available the solid continues to cool in
a regular manner giving the smooth curve "bc".

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1.2.5 Solidification of pure metal and alloy according to

the cooling curve
b) Solidification of Alloy

Unlike pure metals alloys solidify over a range of temperatures.

Below the temperature at which the alloy begins to solidify and the
temperature when it is completely solidified the alloy gradually
becoming stiffer as the lower limit of the solidification range is
approached.
Therefore for any alloy there is a definite temperature at which
solidification begins and an equally definite point where it ends.
These two points are known as the "arrest points".
As two metals may be alloyed in many different compositions i.e.
you could have 80% A and 20% B or 60%A and 40% B it stands to
reason that the cooling curves for all these alloys will be different.
Shown here are a selection of cooling curves for an alloy of Lead and
Tin.

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1.2.5 Solidification of pure metal and alloy according to

the cooling curve
b) Solidification of Alloy

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1.2.6 Phase diagram and cooling curve of Solid solution

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1.2.6 Phase diagram and cooling curve of Solid solution

The phase fields in equilibrium diagrams depend on the

particular systems being depicted.
Liquidus - Set of solubility curves that represents locus of
temperatures above which all compositions are liquid.
Solidus - Represents set of solubility curves that denotes the
locus of temperatures below which all compositions are solid.
Equilibrium phase diagrams - Represent the relationships
between temperature and the compositions and the quantities of
phases at equilibrium.
Composition - the percentage content of certain ingredients put
in a substance. With the presence of percent composition of these
materials can cause changes in phases, properties and the micro
structure of materials.

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