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EENG 6O46 :

POWER
SYSTEM PROTECTION AND
CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Course Description
CHAPTER I: PROTECTION OF POWER APPARATUS &
TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
General philosophy of protection Characteristic function of
protective relays basic relay elements and relay terminology
basic construction of static relays non-critical switching circuits.
Protection of generators stator phase fault protection loss of
excitation protection, generator off-line protection Transformer
protection factors affecting differential protection magnetizing
inrush current Application and connection of transformer
differential relays transformers over current protection
Example motor protection. Bus protection -line protection
classification of lines and feeders Techniques applicable for line
protection distance protection for phase faults Fault resistance
and relaying long line protection Backup remote local and
Breaker failure.

CHAPTER II: PROTECTION OF REACTORS,


BOOSTERS & CAPACITORS

Placement of reactors in power system Types of reactor


reactor rating application and protection booster in the
power system transformer tap changing protection of
boosters capacitors in an interconnected power system
series shunt series shunt connections protection of
capacitors
DIGITAL PROTECTION

Digital signal processing Digital filtering in protection relays
digital data transmission Numeric relay hardware relay
algorithms distance relays direction comparison relays
differential relays software considerations numeric relay
testing concepts of modern coordinated control system

CHAPTER III: SWITCH


GEAR
Insulation of switchgear rated and tested voltage
coordination between inner and external insulation.
Insulation clearances in air, oil SF6 and vacuum,
bushing insulation, solid insulating materials
dielectric and mechanical strength consideration.
Switchgear terminology Arc characteristics
direct and alternating current interruption arc
quenching phenomena computer simulation of
arc models transient re-striking voltage RRRVrecovery
voltage-current
chopping-capacitive
current breaking-auto re-closing.

CHAPTER-IV: CIRCUIT BREAKERS


Types of faults in power systems-short circuit
current and short circuit MVA calculations
for different types of faults-rating of circuit
breakers symmetrical and asymmetrical
ratings. Classification of circuit breakersdesign,
construction
and
operating
principles of bulk oil, minimum oil, airblast,
SF6 and vacuum circuit breakers
Comparison of different types of circuit
breakers .Testing of circuit breakers.


Text Book and References
1. Chunikhin, A. and Zhavoronkov, M., High Voltage Switchgear
Analysis and Design, MirPublishers, Moscow, 1989.
2. Kuffel, E., Zaengl, W.S., and Kuffel J., High Voltage Engineering
Fundamentals,
3. Newness, Second Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann Publishers,
New Delhi, 2000
4.Flursscheim, C.H. (Editor), Power circuit breaker-theory and
design, IEEMonograph Series 17, Peter Peregrinus Ltd.,
Southgate House, Stevenage, Herts, SC1 1HQ, England,1977..
5.Ananthakrishnan S and Guruprasad K.P., Transient Recovery
Voltage and Circuit Breakers, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company Ltd., New Delhi, 1999.

CONTD
5.IEEE Standard Collection, Surge Protection
C62, 1995 Editions, (Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers, Inc.), USA.
6. Funio Nakanishi, Switching Phenomena in high
voltage circuit breakers, MarcelDekker Inc.,
New York, 1991.
7. Stanley H.Horowitz (Ed), Protecting relaying
for power systems, IEEE Press, 1980.
8. Y.G. Paithankar and S.R Bhide, Fundamentals
of Power System Protection, Prentice -Hall of
India, 2003

9. Y.G. Paithankar, Principles of Power System


Protection, Marcel Dekker Inc., 1998.
10. P.Kundur, Power System Stability and
Control, McGraw-Hill, 1993.
11. Badri Ram and D.N. Vishwakarma, Power
System Protection and Switchgear,
TataMcGraw- Hill Publishing Company, 2002.
12. J.L.Blackburn, Power System Protection:
Principles and Applications, Marcel
Dekker,New York, 1998

Assessment and Evaluation:


1. Assignments : 10%
2. Term Paper : 10 %
3. Mid Semester Examination : 30%
4. Final Examination : 50

Introduction
The protective system is very much
essential for an Electrical Power
System.
It is used to isolate the faulty
equipment from
the system and protect the other
equipments as quickly as possible.
o In case of Short circuit , the need for
a protective system is must, if not
isolated it would totally damage the

Protective system
Includes circuit breakers and
protective relays, to isolate the faulty
section of the power system from the
healthy ones.

PRINCIPLES OF THE PROTECTIVE


SYSTEM
The function of a protective relay is
to sense the abnormal conditions in
the power system and gives an alarm
or isolates the part from the healthy
system.
It minimizes the damage to the
equipment and interruptions to the
service when electrical failure occurs.

The relays are compact, self contained


devices which respond to abnormal conditions
. Whenever an fault occurs, the relay contacts
get closed which in turn closes the trip circuit
of a circuit breaker.
The circuit breaker opens and the faulty part
is disconnected from the supply.
Thus the entire process includes the
operations like occurrence of fault, operation
of relay, opening of a circuit breaker and
removal of faulty element . This entire process
is automatic and fast, due to protective
relaying scheme.

The Protective relaying scheme


includes
protective
current
transformers, voltage transformers,
protective relays, circuit breakers etc
and normally about 5 percentage of
the total cost of the project goes
towards the protective relaying
schemes.
It should be noted that a relay does
not prevent the appearance of faults,
but its takes
action only after the fault has

BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF PROTECTIVE


RELAYING

Speed
Selectivity
Sensitivity
Reliability
Simplicity
Economic

Speed
The relay system should disconnect
the faulty section as quickly as
possible for the following reasons
improves the stability of power system.
decreases the amount of damage
caused.
decreases the possibility of
development of one type of fault into
the other more serve type.
Permits the use of rapid reclosure of
circuit breakers to restore service to

Selectivity
It is the ability of the protective
system to determine the point at
which
the
fault
occurs
and
disconnect the faulty part without
disturbing the rest of the system.
The relay should be able to detect
the point at which the fault occurs
and cause the opening of the circuit
breakers
closest
to
the
fault
minimum or no damage to the

Sensitivity

It is the ability of the relay system to


operate with low value of actuating quantity.
The relay should be sensitive to operate
when the fault current exceeds the pick up
value and should not operate when the fault
current is less than pick up value.
Sensitivity of a relay is a function of the volt
amperes input to the coil of the relay
necessary to cause its operation.
The smaller the volt ampere input required
to cause relay operation , the more sensitive
is the relay

Contd
Mathematically it is expressed as
sensitivity factor Ks.
Ks = Is/ Io
Where
Ks = sensitivity factor
Is = minimum short circuit
current in the zone.
Io = minimum operating
current for the protection.

RELIABILITY
It is the ability of the relay system to
operate under the pre determined
conditions.
The failure of the protective system may
be due to the failure of any of the
elements of the system viz, protective
relay, circuit breaker, P.T, C.T Battery etc.
In order to get high reliability.
The reliability should be of the order of
above 95 percentage.

Simplicity
The relaying system should be
simple so that it can be easily
maintained.
The simpler the protection scheme,
the greater will be the reliability.

Economic
The most important factor in the
choice of a particular protection
scheme is the economic aspect.

FUNCTIONS OF PROTECTIVE
RELAY
The prefect removal of the component which is
behaving abnormally by closing the trip circuit
of circuit breaker to sound an alarm.
To disconnect the abnormally operating part
as to avoid the damage to reset of the system.
To prevent the subsequent faults by
disconnecting the abnormally operating part.
To disconnect the faulty part as quickly as
possible so as to minimize the damage to the
faulty part itself.

The protective relaying plays an


important role in sensing the faults,
minimizing the effect of faults and
minimizing the damage due to the
faults.

NATURE AND CAUSES OF


FAULTS
The nature of a fault implies any abnormal
condition which causes a reduction in the
basic insulation strength between
conductors or between phase conductors
and earth.
Faults are normally caused by breaking of
conductors or due to insulation failure.
The other reasons are mechanical failure,
accidents, excessive internal and external
stresses.

Causes of faults
When a fault occurs on the system,
the voltages of the three phases
become un equal.
As the fault current are large the
apparatus may get damaged.

FAULT STASTISTICS
S.NO

EQUIPMENT

1.

Over head lines

50

2.

Switchgear

15

3.

Transformer

12

4.

Cables

5.

% OF total
faults

10

Miscellaneous

6.

Control equipment

7.

CTs and PTs

Fault distribution in power system

Fault occurance

Line to Line to
Ground

2 0r less

In case of three phase system the


breakdown of insulation between one of
the phases and earth is known as Line to
ground fault.(L - G)
If there is insulation breakdown between
either of the two phases it is known as
Line to Line Fault. ( L - L).
If there is insulation breakdown between
two phases and earth it is known as
Double Line ground Fault ( L - L - G).
The breakdown of insulation between the
phases is three phase fault (L - L - L)

Causes of a Fault or Short


Circuit
Over voltage due to switching
Over voltage due to the direct and
indirect lightning strokes.
Bridging of conductors by birds.
Breakdown of insulation due to less
dielectric strength.
Mechanical damage to the
equipment.

ZONES OF PROTECTION
In a protective relaying scheme , it is
a usual practice to divide the entire
system into several protection zones.
When a fault occurs in a given zone,
then only the circuit breakers within
that zone will be opened.
This will isolate only the faulty part,
leaving the healthy circuit intact.

Various protective zones of power

The boundaries of protective zones are


decided by the locations of the current
transformer.
In
practice,
various
protective zones are overlapped.
The overlapping of protective zones is
done to ensure complete safety of each
and every element of the system.
The zone which is unprotected is called
dead spot.
The zones are overlapped and hence
there is no chance of existence of a dead
spot in a system.

For the failures within the region where


two adjacent protective zones are
overlapped, more circuit breakers get
tripped than minimum necessary to
disconnect the faulty element If there
are no over laps, then dead spot may
exist, means the circuit breakers lying
within the zone may not trip even
though the fault occurs.
This may cause damage to the healthy
system. The extent of overlapping of
protective zones is relatively small .

Types of Protection
(i) Primary Protection
(ii) Back up Protection

Primary Protection
The primary protection is the first
line of defense and is responsible to
protect all the power system
elements from all the types of faults.
The backup protection comes into
play
only
when
the
primary
protection fails.

Back up Protection
The backup protection is provided as the main
protection can fail due to many reasons like,
1. Failure in circuit breaker
2. Failure in protective relay
3. Failure in tripping circuit
4. Failure in d.c tripping voltage
5. Loss of voltage or current supply to the
relay.
Thus it the backup protection is absent and
the main protection tails then there is a
possibility of severe damage to the system.

Methods of Back up Protection

Relay Back Up Protection : In this method, a


single breaker is used by both primary and back up
protection but the two protective systems are
different.
Breaker Back Up Protection: In this method,
Separate breakers are provided for primary and back
up protection. Both breakers are at the same station.
Remote Back Up Protection : In this method,
separate breakers are provided for primary and
backup Protection. But the breakers are at different
stations and are completely isolated.
Centrally Co ordinated Back up Protection : In
this method, primary protection is at various
stations. There is a central control room and back up
protection for all the stations is at central control
room.

Neutral Earthing or
Grounding
It is nothing but, the neutral point of
generator , transformer, system,
Circuit , rotating machines etc; is
connected to earth directly or
through a reactance .
The term earthing is used in U.K .
The term grounding is used in U.S.A.

Neutral grounding is very


important
The earth fault protection is based on
the method of neutral earthing.
The system voltage during earth fault
depends on neutral earthing.
It is provided basically for the purpose
of protection against arcing grounds,
unbalanced voltages with respect to
earth, protection from lighting and for
improvement of the system

Terminologies used in
Protective Relay
Protective Relay : It is an electrical relay used
for protection of electrical devices. It closes its
contacts, when operating quantity reaches certain
pre determined value. It is used to initiate isolation
of apart of circuit during abnormal conditions.
Trip Circuit : The circuit which comprises of trip
coil, relay contacts, auxiliary switch, battery
supply ,seal in coil etc which controls the circuit
breaker for opening operation.
Relay Time: The time interval between occurrence
of fault and the closure of relay contacts.

Breaker Time : The time interval between


closure of trip circuit and final arc interruption.
Fault clearing time = Relay time + Breaker time.
Pick Up : The operation of relay is called relay
pick up.
The pick up value is the minimum value of
operating quantity at which the relay operates
and closes it contacts.
Dropout or Reset : The value of current/ voltage
below which the relay resists and comes back to
original position.
Burden : The power consumed by the relay
circuits expressed in VA or W under certain
specified conditions.

Earth fault : a fault involving earth or ground eg L G


FAULT L L G FAULT.
Phase fault : a fault which does not involve earth. Eg
L L fault.
Instantaneous Relay : It is a fast relay having relay
time less than o.2 sec and have no time lag.

Electromechanical Relay : It operates on the


electromagnetic principle in which the measurement is
performed by movable parts.
Static Relay : It is also called solid state relay in which
relay measurement is performed by static circuit.
Distance Relay : This relay measures the impedance
or reactance at the relay location. The impedance of the
line is proportional to length of the line and it is used for
the protection of transmission line.

Over current Relay : This relay operates when


the actuating current exceeds a pick up value.
Under Voltage Relay : This relay operates when
the system voltages falls below the pick up value.
Directional Relay: This relay is able to sense
whether the faults lies in the forward direction or
reverse direction with respect to the relay
location.
Differential Relay : This relay measures the
difference of two actuating quantities and
operates when this difference exceeds a pre set
value.
Auto reclosure : The process of automating
reclosing of circuit breaker after its opening.

Reach: It is the distance up to


which the relay will cover the
protection.
Over Reach : If the relays operates
for a fault beyond its preset reach, it
is called over reach.
Under Reach : If the relay fails to
operate for a fault within its pre set
value .

CLASSIFICATION OF RELAYS
Most of the relays in service on
electrical power system are of electro
mechanical type.
They work on the following two main
operating principles
(i) Electromagnetic Attraction Relays
(ii) Electromagnetic Induction Relays

According to construction
(i) Electromagnetic Relays
(ii)Induction Relay
(iii) Electro thermal Relay
(iv) Physio electric Relay
(v) Electro dynamic Relay
(vi) Static Relay
(vii) Micro Processor Relay

Electromagnetic Relays
(a) Attracted armature type Relay
(b) Solenoid type Relay
(c) Balanced beam type Relay
(d) Moving coil type Relay
(e) Moving Iron type Relay
These relays are actuated by a.c or d.c
quantities.

Electromagnetic Induction or
Induction relays
Uses the principle of Induction motor.
Actuated by a.c. quantities only
(a)Shaded pole structure (or) Induction
disc type Relay.
(b) Watt hour meter (or) Double
winding structure type Relay.
(c) Induction Cup type Relay.

(iii) Electrothermal Relays: Used for


thermal overload protection using
bimetallic strips.
(iv) Physico electric Relays: Bucholtz
relay is under this kind, utilized in
transformer Protection.
(V) Electrodynamic Relays : Operate on
the same principles as the moving
coil instruments.
(vi) Static Relays : Such relays
employing thermionic valves,
transistors or amplifiers to obtain the
operating characteristics.

According to Application
(i) Falls below specified limit or value
(a) Under voltage Relay
(b) Under Current Relay
(c) Under Power Relay
(d) Under Frequency Relay

(ii)Exceeds specified value


(a)Over Voltage Relay
(b) Over Current Relay
(c) Over Power Relay
(iii) Directional Reverse Current
Relay : The relay is actuated when
the direction of current is reversed
or the phase of the current becomes
more than the pre determined
value.

(iv) Directional Reverse power


Relay :
The relay is actuated when the
phase displacement between applied
voltage and current attains a
specified value.

Distance Type Relay


These relay work on the principle of
measurement of voltage to current
ratio.
In these type there are two coils.
One coil is energized by current while
other by voltage.
The torque produced is proportional
to the ratio of the two quantities.
When the ratio reduces below a set
value the relay operates.

Differential Type Relays


A differential relay operates when the
vector difference of two (or) more
electrical quantities in the circuit in
which relay is connected, exceeds a
set value

Electromagnetic Relay
In an electromagnetic relay the
driving torque is created based on an
electrical or electronic principle.
The restraining torque is generally
provided with the help of springs.
The torques are mechanically
compared and the relay operates
when driving or operating torque is
more than the restraining torque

T R = Td - T r
Where
TR = Resultant torque
Td = Driving torque or
operating torque.
Tr = Restraining torque.
The relay operates When the resultant
torque is positive.

Basic Trip Circuit Operation

Tripping Schemes in Circuit


Breaker
Two schemes are very popularly used
for tripping in circuit breakers which
are
(1) Relay With Make type contact
(2) Relay With Break type contact

Relays With Make Type


Contact

Relays With Brake Type


Contact

Electromagnetic Attraction
Relays
In these relays , there is a coil which
energizes an electromagnet.
When the operating current becomes
large, the magnetic field produced by an
electromagnet is so high that it attracts
the armature or plunger ,making contact
with the trip circuit contacts.
Types of electromagnetic attraction type
are
(i) Attracted armature relay (ii) Solenoid
and plunger type relay

Attracted Armature Type


Relay
There are two types of structure
available for attracted armature type
relay which are
(i) Hinged armature type
(ii)Polarised moving iron type

Hinged Armature Type

Polarised moving iron type


Relay

Solenoid and plunger type


relay

Operating Principle of
Electromagnetic Attraction Relays
The electromagnetic force produced
due to operating quantity which is
exterted on armature, moving iron or
plunger is the proportional to the
square of the flux in the air gap.
Thus neglecting the saturation effect,
the force is proportional to the
square of the operating current.

Induction Type Relay


It is also called as magnitude relays.
It works on the principle of the
induction motor or energy meter.
The coils are energized with the help of
alternating current.
The torque is produced in these relays
due to the interaction of one
alternating flux with eddy currents in
the rotor by another alternating flux.

Types of Induction Relays


Based on the construction they are
(i) Shaded Pole type
(ii)Watt hour meter type
(iii) Induction Cup Type

Watthour Meter Type Induction


Relay

Induction Cup Type Relay

Time Current Characteristics


Time required to rotate the disc
depends on a torque.
The torque varies as current in
primary circuit .
More the torque, lesser is the time
required hence relay has inverse
time characteristics.
Such characteristics are called
Inverse Definite Minimum Type (I D M
T)

STATIC RELAYS OR SOLID STATE


RELAYS
Static relay is an electrical relay in which
the response (or) action is developed by
electrical/magnetic or other components
without mechanical motion of components.
A static relay is defined as one in which
there is no armature or other moving
element, the desired response being
developed by electronic solid state ,
magnetic or other components without
mechanical motion.

Contd.
A relay using a combination of both
static and electromagnetic units is
also called Static relay.
A static relay employs semiconductor
diodes, transistors, Zener diodes ,
SCRs logic gates. etc., as its
components. Nowadays I.Cs are used
in place of transistors because of
their reliability and compactness.

Basic Elements of Static


Relay

Comparison of static Relays with


Electromagnetic Relay
The conventional electromagnetic
relays use the moving parts such as
an armature, disc etc.
There are lot of manufacturing
difficulties and problems related to
mechanical stability associated with
electromagnetic relays.
The CTS and PTs are subjected to
high burdens in case of
electromagnetic relay

Contd
The static relays are commonly using the
transistor circuits and called transistor
relays.
This because transistors can be used as an
amplifying device as well as a switching
device.
Hence any functional characteristics as per
the requirement can be obtained by the
static relays.
The transistor circuits can perform functions
like summation, integration, comparison etc..

Advantages of Static Relays


The moving parts are absent, the minimum
maintenance is required . No bearing or
friction troubles exist. The moving parts are
present only in the actual tripping circuit
and not in the control circuit.
The burden on the CTs gets considerably
reduced thus smaller C.T.s can be used.
The power consumption is very low as most
of the circuits are electronic.
The response is very quick.

Contd

The resetting time can be reduced and


overshoots
can
be
reduced
and
overshoots can be reduced due to
absence of mechanical inertia and
thermal storage.

The sensitivity is high as signal


amplification can be achieved very
easily.
The low energy levels required in the
measuring circuits make the relays
smaller and compact in size.
The testing and servicing is simplified.

Static current relay

Directional Static Over current Relay

Static Differential Relay

Generator Protection
The generators used in the power system are
the alternators which produce very high a.c.
voltages. The protection of generators is very
much complex due to the following reasons,
They are very large machines producing very
high voltages and are connected to busbars.
Various other equipments are always
associated with the generators. Such
equipments are prime movers, excitation
systems, voltage regulators, cooling systems
etc.

Contd
The generators are very costly,
expensive and very important factor
in a power system. The Protection
scheme must be such that it should
not shut off the generators as far as
possible.
The shut off generators result in a
power shortage.

Generator Faults
1.Stator Faults : The faults associated
with the stator of the generator.
2. Rotor Faults : The faults associated
with the rotor of the generator.
3. Abnormal running conditions

Stator faults
(i) Phase to Earth faults.
(ii) Phase to phase faults.
(iii) Stator Inter Turn faults.

Phase to Earth faults.


Occurs in the armature slots.
Are dangerous and can cause severe damage
to the expensive machine.
The fault current less than 20 A cause
negligible burning of core if machine is tripped
quickly.
To avoid the damage due to phase to earth
faults a separate ,sensitive earth fault
protection is necessary for the generators
along with the earthing resistance.

Phase to phase faults.


Short circuit between two phase windings.
once phase to earth fault occurs, due to the
over heating phase to phase fault also may
occur.
It is likely to occur at the end connections of
the armature winding which are overheating
parts outside the slots.
It causes severe arcing with very high
temperatures. May lead to melting of copper
and fire if the insulation is not fire resistant.

Stator Inter Turn faults


Coils used in the alternators are
generally multiturn coils. So short
circuit between the turns of one coil
may occur which is called an inter
turn fault.
occurs due to current surges with
high value of voltage across the
turns.
But if the coils used are single turn
then this fault can not occur.

Rotor Faults
(i) Field Over loading
(ii)Field winding grounding
(iii)Heating of rotor
(iv)Rotor earth fault

Abnormal Running
Conditions

Overloading
Overspeeding
Unbalanced loading
Overvoltage
Failure of Prime mover
Loss of excitation (field failure)
Cooling system failure

Overloading

Continuous overloading, overheating


of the stator.
Increases the winding temperature.
Temperature rise exceeds the certain
limit the insulation of the winding
may get damaged.
The degree of overloading decides
the effect and temperature rise.
The over current protection is
generally set to very high value.

Overspeeding
In case of hydraulic generators a
sudden loss of load results in over
speeding of the generator.
Due to the water flow to the turbine
cannot be stopped or reduced
instantly.

Unbalanced Loading
In the circulation of negative sequence currents,
produce the rotating magnetic field.
At the synchronous speed with respect to rotor.
The direction of rotation is opposite to that rotor.
The relative speed between the two is double the
synchronous speed, thus e.m.f get induced ,
having double the normal frequency in the rotor
winding.
The reasons are (i) occurrence of unsymmetrical
fault near the generating station.(ii)failure of C.B.

Overvoltage
Due to overspeeding of generators.
Faulty operation of voltage
regulators.
Atmospheric surge voltages
Surge arresters and surge capacitors
are often used.

Failure of Prime mover


Motoring operation of synchronous
generator.
Draws active power from the
network .
If it persists for more than twenty
seconds
Serious overheating of the steam
turbine blades may result.
The reverse power protection
achieved by directional power relays

Loss of Excitation

Due to field failure.


Loss of synchronism within a second
causes the increase in speed of the
generator.
Generator starts working as an induction
generator , drawing the reactive power
from the bus.
Leads to the overheating of the stator and
rotor body,
Disconnection of alternator should be taken
immedately.

Cooling System Failure


Severe overheating to rise the
temperature
Insulation failure .
Thermocouples or resistance
thermometers
Wrong synchronization , local
overheating , leakage in hydrogen
circuit , moisture in the generator
winding, oxygen in pure water
circuit , Vibrations.

Basic Differential Protection Scheme


for Generators

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