CORROSION

Lecture Delivered by
Jawed Ahsan
Pak Arab Fertilizer Multan

 Introduction
Corrosion is usually defined as the
deterioration of a metal or its properties
caused by a reaction with its environment.
Most metals occur naturally in the form of
oxides and are usually chemically stable.
When exposed to oxygen and other
oxidizing agents, the refined metal will try
to revert to its natural oxide state. In the
case of iron, the oxides will be in the form
of ferrous or ferric oxide, commonly known
as rust.

 Metallic corrosion generally involves the

loss of metal at a particular location on an
exposed surface. Corrosion occurs in
various forms ranging from a generalized
attack over the entire surface to a severe
concentrated attack. In most cases, it is
impossible or economically impractical to
completely arrest the corrosion process;
however, it is usually possible to control
the process to acceptable levels

 The U.S. government funded a detailed

study of the annual cost of corrosion in
1975. The total cost of metallic corrosion
to the U.S. economy was estimated at 4%
of the GNP ($70 billion dollars). Of that,
approximately 30% was defined as
avoidable. Adjustment based on today's
current economy puts total current costs in
the $300 billion range with over $100
million of that avoidable.

 Corrosion Terms
Anode - An electrode at which oxidation of
the surface or some component of the
solution is occurring. Practically, this is the
electrode at which corrosion occurs.
Ampere - The practical unit of electrical
current equal to that produced by one volt
applied across a resistance of one ohm.
Ampere-hour - The unit quantity of
electricity equal to that produced by one
ampere of current in a one hour period.

 Cathode - An electrode at which reduction

is occuring. Practically, this is the
electrode at which protection occurs in a
cathodic protection system.
Corrosion - The deterioration of material,
usually metal, from a reaction with its
environment.
Current Density - The applied electrical
current per unit area.

 Electrolyte - The common environment

with which both a cathode and anode are
in contact. Practically, this is the soil or
water to which a metal structure is
exposed.
Galvanic Anode - A metal that provides
cathodic protection when connected to
other metals, as a result of its relative
position in the Galvanic Series.

 Galvanic Series - A listing of metals in

order of reactivity when exposed to an
electrolyte.
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection - A
cathodic protection system derived from
the application of external electrical
energy from sources such as common
electrical power, thermoelectric
generators, and solar panels.

 Ohm - The practical unit of electrical resistance

equal to the resistance of a circuit in which a
potential difference of one volt produces a
current of one ampere.
Sacrificial Cathodic Protection - A cathodic
protection system derived from the internal
electrical energy developed by coupling to more
reactive metals such as aluminum, magnesium,
and zinc.
Volt - The practical unit of electrical potential
difference required to produce a current flow of
one ampere across a resistance of one ohm.

 Corrosion Process
Metallic corrosion is caused by the flow of direct
current from one part of the metal surface to
another. This flow of direct current causes the
loss of metal at the point where current
discharges into the environment (oxidation or
anodic reaction). Protection occurs at the point
where current returns to the metal surface
(reduction or cathodic reaction. The rate of
corrosion is proportional to the magnitude of the
corrosion current. One ampere of direct current
removes approximately twenty pounds of steel in
one year. Where corrosion occurs and to what
extent depends upon the environment to which
the metal is exposed.

 our conditions must be met for corrosion

to occur. Elimination of any of the four
conditions will halt the corrosion reaction.
Anode - the oxidation reaction occurs
here. Current discharge into the
environment and metal loss are
associated with this reaction.
Cathode - the reduction reaction occurs
here. Current acceptance and metal
protection are associated with this
reaction.
.

 Electrolyte - the environment to which both

the cathode and the anode are exposed.
The electrolyte must have the capacity to
conduct electrical current through the flow
of ions.
Metallic path - the anode and the cathode
must be connected via a metallic
connection that conducts electrical current
flow through the flow of electrons

 Forms of Corrosion
Corrosion exhibits itself in a number of
ways. A brief description of some of these
is provided below. General Corrosion is
the most common form of corrosion. It
exhibits itself in an overall attack of the
metal surface with no apparent
concentrations. An example is the effect of
atmospheric corrosion.

 Pitting Corrosion results in a localized,

concentrated attack and has the
appearance of holes or craters.
Crevice Corrosion occurs in shielded
areas where stagnant corrosive electrolyte
accumulates. This type of corrosion
occurs under bolt heads, gasket surfaces,
and overlapping metal connections

 Erosion-Corrosion is a combination of
electrochemical and mechanical damage that
occurs in environments of high fluid velocities or
mechanical movement between two metals.
Selective Leaching results in one constituent of
an alloy being selectively removed, leaving a
porous replica of the original alloy. An example is
the dezincification of brass or bronze and the
graphitization of cast iron where iron is removed
selectively, leaving a replica composed of
carbon or graphite.

 Erosion-Corrosion is a combination of
electrochemical and mechanical damage that
occurs in environments of high fluid velocities or
mechanical movement between two metals.
Selective Leaching results in one constituent of
an alloy being selectively removed, leaving a
porous replica of the original alloy. An example is
the dezincification of brass or bronze and the
graphitization of cast iron where iron is removed
selectively, leaving a replica composed of
carbon or graphite.

 Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is the formation

of brittle cracks in a normally sound material
through the simultaneous action of a tensile
stress and a corrosive environment. In most
cases, SCC has been associated with the
process of active path corrosion (APC) whereby
the corrosive attack or anodic dissolution
initiates at specific localized sites and is focused
along specific paths within the material. In some
cases, these are along grain boundaries, in
other cases, the path is along specific
crystallographic within the grains.

 Causes of Corrosion
Corrosion is a natural process. The
primary driving force of corrosion is based
upon the transformation of iron from its
natural state to steel. The refining of iron
ore into steel requires the addition of
energy. Steel is essentially an unstable
state of iron and corrosion is the process
of iron returning to its natural state. The
energy used in the refining process is the
driving force of corrosion.

 Corrosion cells are established on underground

pipelines for a variety of causes. A primary
cause of corrosion is due to an effect known as
galvanic corrosion. All metals have different
natural electrical potentials. Where two metals
with different potentials are connected to each
other in a common environment, current will flow
causing corrosion to occur. The coupling of steel
to a different metal, such as copper, will cause a
corrosion circuit to be established. Direct
coupling of copper to steel will cause the steel to
corrode much faster than normal

 Another form of this is the coupling of

rusty pipe to new, clean steel. The natural
difference in potential causes the new
steel to corrode more rapidly than the old
steel. Other causes of pipeline corrosion
cells include the effect of different soil
types, oxygen availability, stray current
interference and microbiological growth.

 Two other unique causes (and sometimes

related) are stress and hydrogen. Stress
Corrosion occurs when even a very small pit
forms in a metal under stress. The concentrated
stress either deepens and extends the pit, or
cracks the protective film which tends to form.
Under continued exposure to the corrosive
medium and stress, the crack extends by
alternate corrosion and stress failure.
Hydrogen Embrittlement and hydrogen attack
results when atomic hydrogen penetrates into
the grain boundaries of steel producing
microcracks, blistering and loss of ductility. The
atomic hydrogen combines into molecules and
results in blistering and laminations.

 Control of Corrosion
The five general methods used in the control of
corrosion are coating, cathodic protection,
material selection, environmental modification,
and design practices. Control of underground
corrosion is primarily achieved by two methods:
coating and cathodic protection. An effective
external coating can provide corrosion protection
to over 99% of the exposed pipe surface. The
protective coating is usually applied to the pipe
or tank before burial. The coating serves to
electrically insulate the metal from the soil

 If the metal could be completely isolated,

then the establishment of corrosion cells
would be prevented and no corrosion
current would flow. However, no coating
can be considered a perfect coating.
Damage to the coating as a result of
handling, transportation, installation,
thermal stresses, and soil stresses will
eventually create defects or "holidays" that
expose the underlying steel to the
environment.

 Cathodic protection is an electrochemical

technique for preventing corrosion of a metal
exposed to an electrolyte. The process involves
application of DC electrical current to the metal
surface from an external source. By forcing the
metal surface to accept current from the
environment, the underground metal becomes a
cathode and protection occurs. The external
source can use outside AC power through a
rectifier and groundbed or by attaching sacrificial
metals such as magnesium or aluminum to the
structure to be protected. It is used extensively
in preventing corrosion to underground and
submerged steel structures; such as pipelines,
production well casings, and tanks.

 Effective application of cathodic protection

can provide complete protection to any
exposed areas for the life of the structure.
The combination of an external coating
and cathodic protection provides the most
economical and effective choice for
protection of underground and submerged
pipelines. For bare or ineffectively coated
existing pipeline systems, cathodic
protection often becomes the only
practical alternative for corrosion
protection.

 Cathodic protection is a mandated

requirement of federal and state
regulations governing underground
transmission pipelines, gas distribution
systems, and underground fuel tanks.
These requirements include installation,
monitoring, and maintenance of cathodic
protection systems.

 Introduction of CP
Cathodic protection is an electrochemical
technique for preventing corrosion of a metal
exposed to an electrolyte. The process involves
application of DC electrical current to the metal
surface from an external source. The external
source can be either a commercial power source
or through connection to sacrificial metals such
as magnesium or aluminum. It is used
extensively in preventing corrosion to
underground and submerged steel structures;
such as pipelines, production well casings, and
tanks.

 Effective application of cathodic protection

can provide complete protection to any
exposed areas for the life of the structure.
The combination of an external coating
and cathodic protection provides the most
economical and effective choice for
protection of underground and submerged
pipelines. For bare or ineffectively coated
existing pipeline systems, cathodic
protection often becomes the only
practical alternative for corrosion
protection.

 Cathodic protection is a mandated

requirement of federal and state
regulations governing underground
transmission pipeline, gas distribution
systems, and underground petroleum
tanks. These requirements include
installation, monitoring, and maintenance
of cathodic protection systems.

 Process of Cathodic Protection

Cathodic protection essentially means the
reduction or elimination of corrosion on a metal
surface by forcing the metal to become a
cathode. The two general types of cathodic
protection systems are impressed current and
sacrificial. Both types of systems can effectively
transfer the corrosion reaction (oxidation) from
the metal surface to an external anode. If all
exposed parts of a structure become cathodic
with respect to the electrolyte, corrosion of the
structure is eliminated.

 Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection

Sacrificial cathodic protection occurs when
a metal is coupled to a more reactive
(anodic) metal. This connection is referred
to as a galvanic couple. In order to
effectively transfer corrosion from the
metal structure, the anode material must
have a large enough natural voltage
difference to produce an electrical current
flow

 Three metals are commonly utilized for

cathodic protection of steel. The selection
of the anodic metal is dependent upon
resistivity and electrolyte. A general
application guide for these metals are:
Magnesium - soil and freshwater
applications
Zinc - low resistivity soils and saltwater
Aluminum - saltwater and limited
freshwater applications

 An advantage of sacrificial anode systems

is the flexibility in application. Anodes can
be installed in a variety of applications and
configurations. No outside power is
required for cathodic protection to be
effective. Another advantage is the
minimal maintenance required for these
systems to function.

 Disadvantages of sacrificial anode

systems include the limited protection
current available and limited life. Sacrificial
anodes are subject to rapid corrosion
(consumption) and require replacement on
a regular basis. Typical design life of a
pipeline system anode is five to ten years.

 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection

Impressed current cathodic protection
involves the application of an external DC
current through long-lasting anodes. A
typical source of power for an impressed
current system is AC power converted to
DC by a rectifier.
In order to be effective, impressed current
anodes must be designed for long life at
high current output. This requires selection
of materials with very low corrosion
(consumption) rates

 The typical expectation of impressed current

anode life is over twenty years. Anode materials
that have proven to be suitable for impressed
current systems include treated graphite, high
silicon cast iron, mixed metal oxide, and to a
lesser extent platinum and magnetite. Anodes
are normally installed in grouped configurations
in the electrolyte. These groupings (both
horizontal and vertical) in an underground
application are called groundbeds. The
groundbeds are connected to the power by a
positive cable to the power source. A negative
cable connects the power source to the
structure.