Understanding Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

SCIENCE FORM 3
CHAPTER 4: REPRODUCTION
2.1 UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL

REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is the process of producing

new individuals from living organisms.
Sexual reproduction
- Production of new
individuals by living
organisms involving
gametes
Asexual reproduction
- Production of new
individuals by living
organisms without
involving gametes
Reproduction

REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction involves two

parents, one male and one female.
The male parent has two testes that
produce sperms.
The female parent has two ovaries that
produce ova.

REPRODUCTION
The fusion between the nucleus of a

sperm and the nucleus of an ovum to
produce a zygote is called fertilisation.
Sperm
+
Ovum
Zygote
Embryo
Baby
Foetus
General process of sexual reproduction

REPRODUCTION
Fertilisation
Internal fertilisation
External fertilisation
Fusion of the nucleus of a

sperm and the nucleus of
an ovum in the female
body
Fusion of the nucleus of a

sperm and the nucleus of
an ovum outside the
female body

REPRODUCTION
Internal fertilisation by lions

REPRODUCTION
External fertilisation by frogs

REPRODUCTION
Video on external fertilisation:

REPRODUCTION
Organisms produced from sexual

reproduction show variation. Variation is
the differences between individuals of
the same species.
Sexual reproduction is shown by
vertebrates, most invertebrates and
flowering plants.

REPRODUCTION
In asexual reproduction, there is only

one parent involved. No gametes are
involved and no fertilisation takes place.
New individuals produced asexually are
genetically identical to their parent.
There is no variation.

REPRODUCTION
Asexual
reproduction
Binary fission
Division of a
single parental
cell into two
daughter cells
Example: Amoeba
Budding
Process of forming
a bud at the side of
the organisms body
Example: Hydra
and yeast
Spore formation
Vegetative
reproduction
Regeneration
Process of
producing
spores in the
sporangium
Process of
producing new
plants from
vegetative part
of the parent
plant, other than
the flower
Ability of the
fragments of
some
organisms to
grow and
develop into
completely
new
individuals
Example: Moss
and ferns
Example: Banana,
ginger,
Bryophyllum and
onion
Example:
Flatworms and
starfish

REPRODUCTION
Binary fission of Amoeba

REPRODUCTION
Budding of Hydra

REPRODUCTION
Sporangium
Spore formation of fern

REPRODUCTION
Vegetative reproduction of Bryophyllum

REPRODUCTION
Video on spore formation of fern:

REPRODUCTION
Regeneration in starfish

REPRODUCTION
Video on the regeneration of planaria:

REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction
Similarities
- Both processes form new individuals
Differences
Two
Number of parents
One
Yes
Involvement of
gametes
No
Yes
Fertilisation
No

REPRODUCTION
Reproduction
Sexual
reproduction
Binary
fission
Spore
formation
Asexual
reproduction
Budding
Vegetative
reproduction
Regeneration
4.2 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Two sperm
ducts
A pair of
seminal
vesicles
Scrotum
A pair of
testes
Prostate
gland
Urethra
Male
reproductive
system
Penis
Seminal vesicle
Prostate gland
Penis
Sperm
duct
Testis
Urethra
The male reproductive system
Scrotum
Part
Description and function
Sex glands
These include seminal vesicle and prostate gland. Sex glands

secrete fluid which contains nutrients for the sperms
Sperm duct
A tube which transports sperms from the testis to the urethra

inside the body
Testis
Produces the male sperms and male sex hormones
Scrotum
A sac which hangs outside the body

It holds and protects the testes
Urethra
A tube which runs through the penis

It is a passage that allows sperm to flow out of the body
It is a passage that allows urine from the bladder to be excreted
to the outside of the body
Penis
Male sex organ which is made up of soft tissues and rich in

blood vessels
It transfers semen into the vagina of the female during copulation
Sperm is produced by the testis.

Sperm is the smallest cell in the human
body.
It consists of several parts:
(i) Head
(ii) Neck
(iii) Middle piece
(iv) Tail
Nucleus
Acrosome
Neck
Mitochondria
Head
Middle piece
A human sperm
Tail
The head of the sperm contains the

nucleus.
The nucleus consists of genetic material
to be transferred to offspring.
The tail enables the sperm to swim in
the
semen inside the vagina, uterus and
fallopian tube of the female reproductive
system.
Before becoming an adult, every

adolescent has to undergo the puberty
stage. It is the time when the reproductive
system starts to produce gametes.
Boys reach puberty at 12 to 14 years of
age.
During puberty, the testes start to
produce gametes and male sex
hormones.
The male sex hormones are responsible

for the physical, physiological and
emotional changes in males during
puberty.
Deepening of
voice
Growth of hair
on the armpits
and pubic
region
Muscle growth
Changes
during
puberty in a
male
Pimples
4.3 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Uterus
Two fallopian
tubes (oviducts)
A pair of ovaries
Vagina
Female
reproductive
system
Cervix
Fallopian tube
Uterus
Ovary
Cervix
Vagina
The female reproductive system

Part
Description and function
Ovary
Female sex organ that produces ova and female sex

hormones
Fallopian tube
(oviduct)
A muscular tube where fertilisation takes place
Uterus
Pear-shaped with thick muscular walls

Place where the foetus develops and grows
Lining of uterine wall is rich in blood vessels
Cervix
Neck of the uterus. Widens during childbirth
Vagina
Muscular tube which opens to the outside of the female

body as the vulva
Place where the sperms are transferred during copulation
Girls reach puberty earlier than boys

between the ages at 10 to 12.
At puberty, the ovaries start to produce
mature ova and also release female sex
hormones.
The female sex hormones are responsible
for the physical, physiological and
emotional changes in females during
puberty.
Widening of hips
Hair growth on
the armpits and
pubic region
Breast
development
Menstruation
starts
Changes
during puberty
in a female
The ovum is spherical in shape and is the

largest cell in the human body.
The nucleus contains genetic material
which is passed from the mother to her
child.
The ovum is not able to move by itself.
Cell membrane
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Jelly layer
Structure of an ovum
4.4 MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Menstruation starts when a female reaches

puberty. It refers to the shedding
of the lining of uterine wall and blood
flowing through the vagina.
The menstrual cycle is influenced by
female sex hormones and takes 28
days.
The menstrual cycle is influenced by
mental stress, physical activity, emotional
changes and the nutrition of an individual.
4.4 MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Fertile phase/
ovulation phase
Repair phase
Premenstrual
phase
Menstruation
phase
Phases of
the
menstrual
cycle
4.4 MENSTRUAL CYCLE

Lining of uterine wall
thickens and rich in blood
vessels to prepare for the
implantation of embryo, if
fertilisation is successful. If
fertilisation is not
successful, the next cycle
begins
Menstrual cycle
and blood vessels
break down. These
are discharged as
menstruation occurs
Menstruation phase (Day

1 - 5)
Repair phase (Day 6 - 11)
Fertile phase or ovulation
phase (Day 12 - 16)
Premenstrual phase (Day
17 - 28)
An ovum is
released around
the 14th day. Lining
of uterine wall and
blood vessels
continue to develop

thickens and more
blood vessels are
formed
4.4 MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Women stop menstruating when they

are about 50 years old. This is called
menopause, the time which marks the
end of their fertility.
4.5 FERTILISATION AND PREGNANCY
During copulation, millions of sperms are

transferred into the vagina. The sperms
swim through the cervix into the uterus
and up the fallopian tube to meet the
ovum. If the ovum is present in the fallopian
tube, fertilisation takes place.
Fertilisation produces a zygote. The

zygote divides into two, then into four, and
so on. After six days, a ball of cells, now
called an embryo, is formed.
Fusion of the nucleus of the sperm and the nucleus of an ovum
Zygote develops into an embryo, then

into a foetus which resembles a human
being.
When implantation is successful, the
woman is said to be pregnant. It takes
nine months from the time the zygote is
formed until the foetus is ready to be born.

One successful sperm
penetrates the membrane of
the ovum. Fusion of the
sperms nucleus and the
ovums nucleus occurs
(fertilisation)
The zygote moves

down the fallopian
tube into the uterus
The zygote forms a

ball of cells, the
embryo
One mature
ovum is released
by the ovary into
the fallopian tube
(ovulation)
After fertilisation, a
zygote is formed. It
then undergoes
repeated cell
division
The embryo is
implanted inside the
lining of uterine wall 7
-8 days after
fertilisation
(implantation)
Ovulation, fertilisation and implantation of embryo
The embryo which becomes the foetus

grows inside the uterus in a sac
surrounded by a membrane called
amnion.
The sac is filled with a liquid called
amniotic fluid which acts like a cushion
to absorb shock.
A flexible tube called the umbilical cord
connects the foetus to the placenta.
The placenta is formed from the tissue

of the mothers lining of uterine wall and
the developing foetus.
Nutrients and
oxygen diffuse
from the
mothers
blood
Placenta
Carbon dioxide
and waste
products
diffuse from
the foetal
blood

Structure
Description
Uterus
Has muscular walls

Place where embryo implants
itself and develops
Placenta
Made up of tissue from both

mother and the foetus
Place where exchange of
nutrients, oxygen, carbon
dioxide and waste products
takes place between the
mothers blood and
foetal blood
Umbilical cord
Tube which connects the

foetus
to the placenta
Amnion
Membrane which forms a sac

that contains fluid
Foetus
Forms from an embryo
Amniotic fluid
Acts as a cushion and absorbs

shock
Amnion
The foetus grows inside the uterus

Foetal capillaries
Maternal blood pool

Maternal vein
Maternal
artery
Umbilical
vein
Umbilical
cord
Umbilical
arteries
Foetal portion of
placenta
Maternal portion of placenta
A detailed structure of the placenta
4.6 IMPORTANCE OF PRENATAL CARE

Nutrients
Sources
Functions
Carbohydrates
and fats
Rice, bread, potatoes,

butter, cheese
To supply energy for various

daily activities of the mother
Protein
Chicken, beef, fish,

beans, milk, cheese
For growth of new cells in the

foetus
Folic acid
Broccoli, spinach,
hazelnuts, groundnuts
For proper development of

nervous system in the foetus
Vitamin C
Citrus fruit, tomatoes,

guava, vegetables
For healthy skin of the foetus

and mother
Calcium and
phosphorus
Anchovies, cheese, milk
For formation of healthy bones

in the foetus and maintenance
of healthy bones and teeth of
the mother
Iron
Liver, red meat, tuna fish
For formation of haemoglobin to

prevent anaemia in the mother
Fibre
Cereals, vegetables,
fruits
To prevent constipation in the

mother
Spina bifida caused by deficiency of folic acid during pregnancy
Smoking cigarettes is bad for pregnant

women:
(i) Smaller babies
(ii) Babies more likely to be born dead
(iii) Babies who are mentally and physically
retarded
(iv) An abortion or babies born before full
term
If a pregnant woman drinks excessive

alcohol, the baby may suffer from Foetal
Alcohol Syndrome. Alcohol may slow
down the development of the foetus, and
damage its brain, nervous system and
heart.
A pregnant woman should follow her
doctors advice and only take drugs
prescribed to her. There are drugs which
may cause deformities in the foetus.
A baby with birth defects due to Foetal Alcohol Syndrome
4.7 IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN HUMAN

REPRODUCTION
Sterility is the inability to produce

offspring.
When married couples cannot have children,
the male or female partner, or both may be
sterile.

REPRODUCTION
Male
The testes cannot produce sperm
There is sperm production but low
sperm count
Low quality sperms produced
Female
Ovaries cannot produce or
release mature ova
Male is impotent. Sperms cannot be Blocked oviducts due to growth of

transferred into the vagina
tissues or infection
Abnormal uterus or growth in the
uterus prevents implantation of
embryo
Hormone imbalance or insufficient
sex hormones produced
Hormone imbalance or insufficient

sex hormones produced
Defective reproductive organs or organs infected with disease

Health problems like high blood pressure and diabetes

REPRODUCTION
Ways to treat sterility
Drug treatment
- Stimulate the testes

and ovaries to produce
more sperms and ova
- Men who are
impotent can be
treated with drugs
Surgery
- Blockages or growth
inside the fallopian
tube and uterus can
be removed by
surgery using a
laparoscope
In vitro fertilisation
(IVF)
- IVF is usually used for

a woman with blocked
fallopian tubes
- Ova are removed from
the womans ovaries and
then fertilised by her
husbands sperms in a
glass dish. The embryo
is then implanted into the
uterine wall where it
develops into a foetus

REPRODUCTION
Drug to increase the

number of sperms
Drug to increase the

number of ova
Drug to treat
impotence

REPRODUCTION
A laparoscope is used to perform minor surgery by passing

it through small incision in the abdomen

REPRODUCTION
In vitro fertilisation

REPRODUCTION
Birth control method
Temporary contraceptive
methods
Permanent contraceptive
methods (sterilisation)
- Work based on three

principles:
Preventing ovulation,
preventing fertilisation
and preventing
implantation of embryo
- Involves removal of ones

reproductive capability and
requires surgery
- Sterilisation is irreversible

REPRODUCTION
Principle of
temporary
contraceptive
methods
Method
Description
Preventing
ovulation
Contraceptive pills The ovaries are suppressed so that

they do not produce and release ova
Preventing
fertilisation
Natural method
Married couples avoid copulation

during fertile period
Using a condom
Prevents sperms from entering

the vagina
Using a
diaphragm
Prevents the sperms from

entering the uterus
Intrauterine
contraceptive
device (IUCD)
Small device made of plastic or

copper wire of various sizes and
shapes
It is inserted by a doctor into the
uterus of the female
Preventing
implantation
of embryo

REPRODUCTION
Diaphragm
Contraceptive pills
Condom

REPRODUCTION
Ovary
Cervix
Vagina
Uterus
IUCD
IUCD

REPRODUCTION
Male sterilisation is called vasectomy.

Surgery is carried out to cut off a section
from each sperm duct and the two ends
are then tied. This prevents the sperms
from being transported to the urethra.

REPRODUCTION
Sperm duct
Seminal
vesicle
Ejaculatory
duct
Prostate
gland
Urethra
Sperm duct is cut

and tied
Testis
Scrotum
Vasectomy

REPRODUCTION
Female sterilisation is called ligation.

Surgery is carried out to cut off the middle
section of both fallopian tubes. The
open ends are then tied to prevent the
ovum from moving along the fallopian
tubes to meet the sperms.

REPRODUCTION
Fallopian tubes
Middle section of the

fallopian tube is cut off
Ovary
Uterus
Cervix
Vagina
Ligation
4.8 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION SYSTEM OF

FLOWERING PLANTS
In flowering plants, flowers form the

reproductive system of the plant. They
produce the male and female gametes
for sexual reproduction.
A typical flower consists of:
(i) Sepals
(ii) Petals
(iii) Stamen
(iv) Pistil
4.8 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION SYSTEM OF FLOWERING

PLANTS
Stamen
Anther
Stigma
Pistil
Style
Filament
Ovary
Sepal
Petal
Receptacle
Longitudinal section of a flower

PLANTS
Structure
Function
Sepal
Protects the flower during the bud stage
Petal
Attracts insects and animals
Stamen
Male reproductive organ of a flower
Pistil
Female reproductive organ of a flower
The male reproductive organ of the

flower is called the stamen. Each stamen
consists of the filament and the anther.
The filament is a long stem-like structure
which holds and exposes the anther to
facilitate pollination.

PLANTS
The anther produces the pollen grains

which, in turn, produce the male gametes.
Pollen grains come in different sizes and shapes

PLANTS
The female reproductive organ of the

flower is called the pistil. The pistil is
made up of the stigma, style and ovary.
The ovary is the enlarged part of the
pistil. Within the ovary are the ovules
which contain the female gamete.
The slender, middle part of the pistil is
the style. This is where the pollen tube
grows down the ovary.

PLANTS
At the tip of the style is the stigma. The

stigma traps the pollen grains on its
sticky surface.
4.9 POLLINATION
Pollination is the process of transferring

ripe pollen from the anther to the
stigma.
Pollination
Self-pollination
Cross-pollination
Transfer of pollen from the anther

of a flower to the stigma of the
same flower or to the stigma of
another flower on the same plant
Transfer of pollen from the

anther of a flower to the stigma
of another flower on a different
plant of the same species
4.9 POLLINATION
Cross-pollination
Self-pollination
Self-pollination
Pollination
4.9 POLLINATION
Self-pollination
Cross-pollination
Involves only one plant
Involves two plants of the same

species
Requires one or two flowers from the

same plant
Requires two flowers from different

plants of the same species
If it involves one flower, both the

anther and stigma must mature at the
same time. If it involves two flowers,
the anther and stigma can mature at
different times
The anther and stigma can mature at

different times
Less variety in new plants
More variety in new plants
4.9 POLLINATION
For pollination to occur, pollinating

agents are needed to transfer the pollen
grains.
Insects
Animals
Water
Wind
Types of
pollinating
agents
4.9 POLLINATION
Wind-pollinated flowers have long

filaments to expose the pollen to the
wind. They produce plenty of light pollen.
The stigma is feathery to trap the pollen
carried by the wind.
Anther
Stigma
Wind-pollinated flower
4.9 POLLINATION
Insects, like bees and butterflies, are

important pollinating agents. Insects are
attracted by big, colourful and scented
flowers.
When the insect lands on another
flower to collect food, the pollen may
drop
off and stick on the stigma of that flower.
4.9 POLLINATION
Insect-pollinated flowers produce sticky

pollen. Their styles are short and the
stigma has a sticky surface.
Insect -pollinated flower
4.9 POLLINATION
Animals, like birds and bats, pollinate

flower when they suck nectar from the
flowers. The pollen sticks to the beak or
body of the animals. Flowers pollinated by
animals are big, colourful, scented, and
produce sticky pollen.
4.9 POLLINATION
Water is a pollinating agent for

submerged water plants like Elodea and
Hydrilla. The water carries the pollen from
the anther to the stigma.
Wind-pollinated flower
Small, pale coloured, not scented,
no nectar
Insect-pollinated flower
Big, brightly coloured, scented,
nectar present
Long filament with big anther at the Short filament and small anther at
end, filament sways in the wind and the end
pollen disperses
Plenty of light pollen
Sticky pollen
Long style
Short style
Feathery stigma
Sticky stigma
4.9 POLLINATION
Cross-pollination results in the

combination of genetic materials from
two parent plant of the same species.
Healthier plants
which can
adapt better to
changes in the
environment
Healthier seeds
New varieties
of plants
Advantages
of crosspollination
New plants that

are more
resistant to
pests and
diseases
4.10 DEVELOPMENT OF FRUITS AND SEEDS IN

PLANTS
4.11 GERMINATION OF SEEDS
After fertilisation, most of the flower parts

wilt and die.
The ovules inside the ovary develop into
seeds. A seed is made up of an embryo
and a seed coat (testa).
In monocotyledonous seed, the
endosperm acts as a food store.
In dicotyledonous seed, the cotyledons
act as a food store.
Testa
Seed structure: Dicotyledonous seed (left) and

monocotyledonous seed (right)
Part
Seed
Embryo
Structure
Function
Testa
Protects the seed
Hilum
Place where the seed is attached to the

fruit
Micropyle
Small hole which allows air and water to

enter the seed
Embryo
Consists of plumule, radicle and cotyledon
Plumule
Part of the embryo which develops into a new

shoot
Radicle
Part of the embryo which develops into a new

root
Cotyledon
Stores and provides food for the dicotyledonous

seed
Germination is the process in which the

embryo grows into a seedling. The
conditions required for germination are
the presence of water, air and suitable
temperature.
The embryo needs food for growth and
obtains it from food store in the cotyledon
(dicotyledonous seed) or the endosperm
(monocotyledonous seed).
The plumule grows upwards to form a new

shoot. The radicle grows downwards into
the soil to form the root. Now, it is called a
seedling.
The seedling continues to absorb food
from the food store until it forms green
leaves to produce its own food by
photosynthesis.
Germination of seed
4.12 VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING

PLANTS
Besides sexual reproduction, many

flowering plants can reproduce
vegetatively.
Vegetative reproduction is a method of
producing new plants from any vegetative
part of the parent plant, other than the
flower.
Parts of the plants that can reproduce
vegetatively are the root, stem and leaf.

PLANTS
The vegetative parts contain stored food

and buds. The buds use the stored
food and grow into a new plant. Soon it
will produce its own food by
photosynthesis.

PLANTS
Vegetative parts
Examples of plants
Roots
Sweet potato
Carrot
Potato
Ginger
Stems
Underground stem

PLANTS
Vegetative parts
Examples of plants
Stems
Horizontal stem
(runners)
Water lettuce
Strawberry
Vegetative
Onionreproduction
Hyacinth
Stems
Bulb

PLANTS
Vegetative parts
Examples of plants
Leaves
Bryophyllum
Begonia

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SCIENCE FORM 3

2.1 UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL

Reproduction is the process of producing

2.1 UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL

Sexual reproduction involves two

2.1 UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL

The fusion between the nucleus of a

General process of sexual reproduction

2.1 UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL

Fusion of the nucleus of a

Fusion of the nucleus of a

2.1 UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL

Internal fertilisation by lions

2.1 UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL

External fertilisation by frogs

2.1 UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL

Video on external fertilisation:

2.1 UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL

Organisms produced from sexual

2.1 UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL

In asexual reproduction, there is only

2.1 UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL

2.1 UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL

Binary fission of Amoeba

2.1 UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL

2.1 UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL

Spore formation of fern

2.1 UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL

Vegetative reproduction of Bryophyllum

2.1 UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL

Video on spore formation of fern:

2.1 UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL

2.1 UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL

Video on the regeneration of planaria:

2.1 UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL

2.1 UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL

4.2 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

4.2 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

4.2 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Description and function

These include seminal vesicle and prostate gland. Sex glands

A tube which transports sperms from the testis to the urethra

Produces the male sperms and male sex hormones

A sac which hangs outside the body

A tube which runs through the penis

Male sex organ which is made up of soft tissues and rich in

4.2 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Sperm is produced by the testis.

4.2 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

4.2 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The head of the sperm contains the

4.2 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Before becoming an adult, every

4.2 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The male sex hormones are responsible

4.3 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

4.3 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

4.3 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Description and function

Female sex organ that produces ova and female sex

A muscular tube where fertilisation takes place

Pear-shaped with thick muscular walls