Motivation?

a motive is that which fuels purposeful behaviour

thus motivation means providing the fuel for purposeful
behaviour
motivation is inherently related with needs the primary
cause of motivation
a need is a psycho-physiological state of deficit-like
imbalance which causes behavior towards eliminating
that imbalance the cause of this purposeful behavior
motivation flows trough interests & goals secondary
causes or mediators
an interest is a self-sustaining motive
a goal is the aim of purposeful behavior
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

The Human Relations School of Thought

The human relations school of thought came into
existence during early 20th century mainly in the post 1st
world-war period and was triggered mainly by the
negative consequences of the application of scientific
management
the focus was on the human psycho-social nature
the conclusions of the Hawthorne longitudinal studies or
experiments at the Western-Electric plant in Illinois, Us
from the mid-1920s till the early 1930s shaped largely
its ideological founding
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

The Human Relations School of Thought

Hawthorne Studies
the Hawthorne Studies (or experiments) were conducted initially from 1924
to 1927 with preliminary experiments on the effect of light on productivity
(illumination studies)
those experiments showed no clear connection between productivity and
the amount of illumination--whatever they did with the light conditions
productivity was rising!--and researchers began to wonder what kind of
changes would influence output
from 1927 to 1932 Harvard Business School professor Elton Mayo
examined the effects that fatigue and monotony had on job productivity
and how to control them through altering rest breaks, work hours,
temperature and humidity (assembly relay studies)
Mayo took six women (2 were piqued and were asked to freely choose
another 4) from the assembly line of telephone relays, separated them
from the rest of the factory and put them under the eye of a supervisor who
was more a friendly observer than disciplinarian; he sat with the girls in the
workshop noting all that went on; keeping the girls informed about the
experiment, giving advice or information and listening to their complaints
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

The Human Relations School of Thought

Hawthorne Studies

the experiment began by introducing various changes, each of which was

continued for a test period of four to twelve weeks
Mayo made frequent changes in their working conditions, always discussing and
explaining the changes in advance.
firstly the hours in the working week, the hours in the workday the number of rest
breaks and the time of a lunch offered free of charge were altered progressively
to be more favorable and finally the women returned to their original, harder
working conditions
Productivity was rising throughout the process while surprisingly it reached its
peak when the women returned to their original, harder working conditions
Secondly the piece rate production was linked to a sophisticated individual wage
incentive plan
No individual maximization of output was recorded rather the women established
a performance norm which determined a proper days work which in turn
determined the total week output
however individual daily reports were erroneously stating the output level
determined by the performance norm independently from the actual level
produced
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

The Human Relations School of Thought

Hawthorne Studies
What was really happening?

the very presence of the observer and especially his

engagement in paying attention and facilitating the groups
functioning (it became a special group) had a positive effect in
group productivity/performance
typically this is referred as the Hawthorne effect
a second meaning of the Hawthorne effect is that of primary
scientific fallacy which refers to the failure to determine with
certainty whether the observed effect in the dependent variable is
caused by our manipulation of the independent variable

the physical isolation of the group and the high amount of

attention that it was receiving increased cohesion dramatically
and the group became a team
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

MOTIVATION
Content Theories

Process Theories
Identify the process through
which personal attributes
and situational
characteristics influence
motivation through
perception & cognition

Identify personal
attributes influencing
motivation (mainly needs)
Human Relations

Maslows Hierachy
of Needs

Alderfers ERG
McClellands Needs
Herzbergs TwoFactor Theory

MOTIVATION

Adams Equity Th.

Lockes & Lathams
Goal Setting Theory

Vrooms Expectancy
H. & O. Job Design
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

Needs Theories
"A need is a construct (a convenient fiction or hypothetical concept) which
stands for a force . . . in the brain region, a force which organizes
perception, apperception, intellection, conation and action in such a way as
to transform in a certain direction an existing, unsatisfying situation. A need
is sometimes provoked directly by internal processes of a certain kind . . .
but, more frequently (when in a state of readiness) by the occurrence of one
of a few commonly effective press [environmental forces]. . . . Thus, it
manifests itself by leading the organism to search for or to avoid
encountering or, when encountered, to attend and respond to certain kinds
of press. . . . Each need is characteristically accompanied by a particular
feeling or emotion and tends to use certain modes . . . to further its trend. It
may be weak or intense, momentary or enduring. But usually it persists and
gives rise to a certain course of overt behavior (or fantasy), which . . .
changes the initiating circumstance in such a way as to bring about an end
situation which stills (appeases or satisfies) the organism (Murray, 1938, pp.
123-124)
personality traits are cognitive-behavioral operationalizations of needs
(Steel & Knig, 2006)
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

Content Theories
Abraham Maslow Hierarchy of Needs (1943)

Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

Hierarchy of Needs: Developmental

Humanism Humanistic Psychology
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970): child of Russian Jews born & raised in New-York,
USABA in Law, MA & PhD in Psychology University of WisconsinProfessor of
Psychology Brooklyn College & Brandeis University (Head of Psychology Dpt 19511969)
Theory Z or the 3rd Force: founded upon Murrays (1938) definition of personality in
terms of needsoriginally developed as a theory of personality not motivation
Marx - physiological needs, Freud - physiological and belongingness needs, Adler esteem need, Rogers & Goldstein - self-actualization need
physiological & security (safety) lower order needs which are satisfied externally
by pay, social & job security etc.
belongingness (social or love), esteem & self-actualization higher order needs
which are satisfied internally-inside the person
the satisfaction of the needs is hierarchical starting firstly with the lower and moving
towards the higher ones
although no-need is fully gratified a substantially satisfied need no longer motivates
an individuals position in the hierarchy ought to be determined in order to decide
upon motives
highly intuitive logic and analytical value but low if any empirical validity
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

Content Theories
Theory X & Y: Douglas McGregor (1906-1964)
The Human Side of Enterprise (1960)
The Human Stereotype of Theory X
the average individual dislikes work and will avoid it if he/she can
because of their dislike for work, most individuals must be controlled and
threatened in order to work hard enough
the average person prefers to be directed, to avoid responsibility, is relatively
unambitious, and wants security above everything

the basic management system application of theory X was Taylors Scientific

Management (time & motion studies) during the late 19 th and early 20th
century, Fordism later on, aw well as authoritarian/autocratic management
systems founded upon the principles of work standardization & specialization
while controlling through providing security & monetary rewards and
administering punishment
its roots lie into Sigmunds Freud hedonistic view of the human nature
highlighting the lower order needs into Abrahams Maslow Hierarchy
no empirical validity
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

Douglas McGregor (originally a Mech. Engineer

later MA, PhD in Psychology: Harvard) was a
Professor of Management in MIT
The human Stereotype of Theory Y
the expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest
control and punishment are not the only ways to make people work, an
individual will direct him/her-self if he/she is committed to the aims of the
organization
if a job is satisfying, then the result will be commitment to the organization
the average individual learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but to
seek responsibility
imagination, creativity, and ingenuity can be used to solve work problems by a
large number of employees
under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the
average man are only partially utilized
applications of theory Y are participative management systems
its roots lie into Karl Rogers humanistic psychology expressed also later on by
Abrahams Maslow Needs Theory (higher order needs)
no empirical validity
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

Content Theories
Clayton Alderfer ERG (1969)

Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

ERG Theory
Clayton Alderfer (1940- ) American psychologist (BSc, PhD in Yale),
Professor of Organizational psychology in Cornell, Yale & Rutgers till 2006
need for existence corresponds to Maslows physiological & security
needs, relatedness to belongingness and growth to esteem & selfactualization needs
there is no hierarchy in satisfying needsan individual may be satisfying
all three needs simultaneously
as a higher need begins to be more and more satisfied it grows in
importance
frustration or failure to satisfy a higher order need leads to regression in
satisfying more of a lower order need
although ERG theory is more parsimonious and relaxed some of
Maslows theory limitations its empirical validity is also low if any
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

Content Theories
Frederick Herzberg Two-Factor Theory (1959)
Extrinsic Factors
Hygiene
factors
Company policy &
must
administration
Supervision
be present
to
avoid
Interpersonal relations
job
Working conditions
Salary
dissatisfaction
Status
Security

Hygiene Factors (KITAs)

Avoid job dissatisfaction
Do not generate motivation

Motivators
Boost job satisfaction &
motivation

Intrinsic Factors
Achievement
Achievement recognition
Work itself
Responsibility
Advancement
Growth

Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human. (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission.

Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

Two-Factor Theory
Frederick Herzberg (1923-2000) was a German-American
psychologist (BA City College of New York, PhD Un. of
Pittsburg), born in the US and held Professor of Psychology &
Management positions in Case Western Reserve & Utah
Universities respectively
the opposite of dissatisfaction is not satisfaction
satisfaction & motivation source from intrinsic factors
absence of dissatisfaction sources from extrinsic factors
highly criticized for multiple flaws of the research methodology
that Herzberg employed
highly intuitive but low if any empirical validity

Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

Content Theories
David McClelland Motivation Needs (1958)
David McClelland (1917 March 1998) was an American psychologist (PhD
Yale) who served as a Psychology Professor in Harvard for 30 years (Head of
the Social Relations Dpt)
Has its roots to Henrys Murray work of personality in terms of needs and its
Thematic Apperception Test
Need for Achievement
the n-ach person is 'achievement motivated: seeks achievement, attainment
of realistic but challenging goals, and advancement in the job. There is a
strong need for feedback as to achievement and progress, and a need for
a sense of accomplishment-the desire to accomplish a goal or task more
effectively than in the past: personal responsibility, feedback & moderate
risks
Need for Power
the n-pow person is 'authority motivated: a need to be influential, effective
and to make an impact. There is a strong need to lead and for their ideas to
prevail. There is also motivation and need towards increasing personal
status and prestige
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

Content Theories
David McClelland Motivation Needs (1958)
Need for Affiliation
the n-affil person is 'affiliation motivated: has a need for friendly
relationships and is motivated towards interaction with other
people. The affiliation driver produces motivation and need to
be liked and held in popular regard. These people are team
players
good empirical validity
high n-ach individuals seem to be good entrepreneurs or
intrapreneurs while do not seem to be necessarily good
managers
n-ach is possible to be taught (McClellands position)
individual with high n-pow & n-affil seem to be good
managers
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

Maslow
SA
Esteem
Belonging

Alderfer
Herzberg
McClelland
Growth

Motivators Achievement Need

Power Need

Relatedness Motivators

Affiliation Need

Safety & Security

Physiological

Existence Hygienes

Affiliation Need

Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

Process Theories
John Adams Equity Theory
(1963) People compare
Outcomes

Inputs

People compare
according to their
own perception
their outcomes to
their inputs

according to their own

perception their own
situation to that of
others (referents)

Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

CONSEQUENCES OF EQUITY

Perceived
Equity

Satisfaction

Motivation
to Maintain
Outcome-toInput Ratio

Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

Equity Theory

Types of Referents
Self-inside: own experience of another job within the current organization
Self-outside: own-experience of another job or situation outside
Others-inside: others within the organization
Others outside: others outside
Perceived Inequity leads to

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Alter my inputs
Alter my outcomes
Distort self-perception
Distort perception about others
Choose another referent
Exit the situation

good empirical validity

extra caution should be paid at perceptions of fairness in the workplace at
all times
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

Organizational Justice is the overall

perception of fairness in the organization
Distributive Justice the
perceived fairness of how
resources and rewards are
distributed
Interactional Justice extent
to which people perceive that
are fairly treated when
procedures are implemented
Procedural Justice the
perceived fairness of the
process and procedure used
to make allocation decisions
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

Process Theories
Edwin Locke (1968)/Locke & Gary Latham (1990, 2002)
Goal-Setting Theory

Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

Goal-Setting Theory
Locke derived the idea from Aristotle's concept of
final causality purpose can cause action
the most valid theory of motivation up to date
it is to a certain level culturally bound
is dependent to a certain extend to individual
personality: works mostly with individuals high in
the CSE trait(s)
works better with tasks simple rather than
complex, well learned than novel and independent
rather than interdependent
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

Process Theories
Victor Vroom Valency or Expectancy Theory (1964)
Porter & Lawler (1968)

Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

Victor Vroom (1932- ) Canadian psychologist

(BA, MA McGill & PhD Un. Of Michigan)
Professor of Management & Psychology in Yale
has its roots into the cognitive concepts of Kurt Lewin
Porter & Lawler updated version
Motivation= [ EP] x [ (PO) (V+ or -) ]
[ EP]: perceived expectancy of effort-performance
(PO): perceived instrumentality of performance-outcome or reward
(V+ or -): perceived positive or negative valence or value of the outcome or reward
in terms of personal goals

clearly an interactional model

expectancy depends on personality and CSE in particular
instrumentality depends on perception of primarily organizational equity & trust
valence depends on both personality and the individual perception of situational
factors
good empirical validity
Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

Hackman & Oldham (1976) Job Design Motivation

Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009

Also called the Job Characteristics

Model or Job Re-design

Task identity refers to the degree that the task(s) of the job
require completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work
good empirical validity for the general theoretical
framework
How jobs can be redesigned?
Job rotation
Job enlargement (horizontal extension of scope)
Job enrichment (vertical extension of scope)
Flextime
Job sharing
Telecommuting

Human Resources, Law and Management Department - September 2009