Perception and

Learning in
Organizations
Chapter Three

McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Copyright 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Perception Defined
The process of receiving
information about and
making sense of the world
around us

deciding which information

to notice

how to categorize this

information

how to interpret information

within our existing
knowledge framework

3-2

Selective Attention
Characteristics of the object

size, intensity, motion,

repetition, novelty

Characteristics of the
perceiver

Emotional marker process

expectations

self-concept and beliefs

3-3

Perceptual Organization/Interpretation
Categorical thinking

Mostly unconscious process of organizing

people/things
Perceptual grouping principles

Closure -- filling in missing pieces

Identifying trends
Similarity or proximity

Mental models

Broad world-views or theories-in-use

Help us to quickly make sense of situations
May block recognition of new
opportunities/perspectives
3-4

Social Perception through Social Identity

Categorization process

compare characteristics of our groups with other

groups

Homogenization process

similar traits within a group; different traits across

groups

Differentiation process

develop less favorable images of people in groups

other than our own

3-5

Stereotyping
Assigning traits to people based on their
membership in a social category
Occurs because:

Categorical thinking
Innate drive to understand and anticipate others
behavior
Enhances our self-concept

3-6

Problems with Stereotyping

Overgeneralizes

Stereotypes dont represent all or most people in

the category

Discrimination

Systemic
Intentional (prejudice)

Overcoming stereotype biases

Difficult to prevent stereotype activation

Possible to minimize stereotype application

3-7

Attribution Process
Internal Attribution

Perception that persons behavior is due to

motivation/ability rather than situation or fate

External Attribution

Perception that behavior is due to situation or

fate rather than the person

3-8

Rules of Attribution
Internal Attribution

Frequently

Frequently

Seldom

Consistency

Distinctiveness

Consensus

Seldom

Seldom

Frequently

External Attribution
3-9

Attribution Errors
Fundamental Attribution Error

attributing own actions to external factors and

others actions to internal factors

Self-Serving Bias

attributing our successes to internal factors

and our failures to external factors

3-10

Positive Self-Fulfilling Prophecies at

Cocoplans

Cocoplans president Caesar T. Michelena believes in treating

employees as customers. It's a self-fulfilling prophecy. If you believe
that [employees] will not last, your behavior towards them will show it
You get what you expect.

3-11

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Cycle

Supervisor
forms
expectations

Employees
behavior matches
expectations

Expectations
affect supervisors
behavior

Supervisors
behavior affects
employee
3-12

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Contingencies

Self-fulfilling prophecy effect is strongest:
1.

2.

3.

At the beginning of the relationship (e.g.

employee joins the team)
When several people have similar expectations
about the person
When the employee has low rather than high
past achievement

3-13

Other Perceptual Errors

Halo effect

one trait forms a general impression

Primacy effect

first impressions

Recency effect

most recent information dominates perceptions

False-consensus effect

overestimate the extent to which others have beliefs and

characteristics similar to our own

3-14

Improving
Perceptions

Perception and Learning

in Organizations

McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Copyright 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Strategies to Improve Perceptions

1.

Awareness of perceptual biases

2.

3.

Consciously try to minimize these errors

Improving self-awareness

Awareness of your values, beliefs and prejudices

Applying Johari Window

Meaningful interaction

Close and frequent interaction toward a shared goal

Equal status
Engaged in a meaningful task
Improves empathy

3-16

Know Yourself (Johari Window)

Feedback
Known to Self
Known
to Others
Disclosure

Unknown
to Others

Open
Area Open
Area
Hidden
Area
Hidden
Area

Unknown to Self

Blind
Area Blind
Area
Unknown
Unknown
Area
Area
3-17

Vodafone Executive Grahame Maher

Vodafone executive
Grahame Maher maintains
meaningful interaction with
staff by discarding the
executive suite and
working alongside
employees every day.
Grahame Maher
Vodafone Czech CEO

3-18

Learning in
Organizations

Perception and Learning

in Organizations

McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Copyright 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Definition of Learning

A relatively permanent change in

behavior (or behavior tendency) that
occurs as a result of a persons
interaction with the environment

3-20

Explicit vs.Tacit Knowledge

Explicit knowledge

Knowledge that is articulated through language,

such as documents

Tacit knowledge

Knowledge acquired through observation and

direct experience

3-21

Behavior Modification
We operate on the environment

alter behavior to maximize positive and minimize

adverse consequences

Learning is viewed as completely

dependent on the environment
Human thoughts are viewed as unimportant

3-22

A-B-Cs of Behavior Modification

Antecedents

Behavior

Consequences

What happens
before behavior

What person
says or does

What happens
after behavior

Machine
operator turns
off power

Co-workers
thank
operator

Example
Warning
light
flashes

3-23

Contingencies of Reinforcement
Consequence
is introduced
Behavior
increases/
maintained

Positive
reinforcement

Behavior
decreases

Punishment

No
consequence

Consequence
is removed
Negative
reinforcement

Extinction

Punishment

3-24

Behavior Modification in Practice

Behavior modification is used in:

every day life to influence behavior of others

company programs to reduce absenteeism,
improve safety, etc.

Behavior modification problems include:

Reward inflation
Behaviorist philosophy vs. learning through
mental processes

3-25

Social Learning Theory

Behavioral modeling

Observing and modeling behavior of others

Learning behavior consequences

Observing consequences that others

experience

Self-reinforcement

Reinforcing our own behavior with

consequences within our control

3-26

Kolbs Experiential Learning Model

Concrete
experience

Active
experimentation

Reflective
observation

Abstract
conceptualization
3-27

Developing a Learning Orientation

Value the generation of new knowledge
Reward experimentation
Recognize mistakes as part of learning
Encourage employees to take reasonable
risks

3-28

Organizational Learning
Knowledge acquisition

Extracting information and ideas from the

external environment as well as through insight

Knowledge sharing

Distributing knowledge to others across the

organization

Knowledge use

Applying knowledge in ways that adds value to

the organization and its stakeholders

3-29

Perception and
Learning in
Organizations
Chapter Three

McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Copyright 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.