FOOD ENGINEERING

DESIGN AND
ECONOMICS
PIPE-LINE DESIGN

Design of piping systems

The design of the piping system can influence the ease and
cost of pumping very considerably.
The following items should be considered by the engineer
when developing the design for a piping system:

1.
2.
a.
b.
c.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
a.
b.

Choice of materials and sizes

Effects of temperature level and temperature changes
insulation
thermal expansion
freezing
Flexibility of the system for physical and thermal shocks
Adequate support and anchorage
Alterations in the system and service
Maintenance and inspection
Ease of installations
Auxiliary or stand-by pumps and lines
Safety
design factors
relief valves, flare systems

For pipe-line systems there are some considerations;

Thermal expansion and the resulting pipe stresses must be
considered in any piping system design. Thermal expansions
could easily cause a pipe or wall to buckle if the pipe is fastened
firmly at each end without allowance for expansion. The
necessary flexibility for the piping system can be provided by
the use of expansion loops, changes in direction, bellows joints,
slip joints and some other devices.
The possibility of solidification can be handled by insulation,
steam tracing and sloping the line to drainage valves.
Water hammer may cause extreme stresses at bends in pipelines. These should be prevented not to damage piping
systems. Liquid pockets should be avoided in steam lines
through use of steam traps and sloping of the line in the
direction of flow. Quick opening or quick closing valves may
cause damaging water hammer and valves of this type may
require protection by use of expansion or surge chambers.
A piping system should be designed so that maintenance and
inspection can be accomplished easily and precautions should
be taken for the possible future changes.
Personal safety considerations in the design depend to a large
extent on the fluids, pressures and temperatures involved.

Pipes are specified according to wall thickness by a standard

formula for schedule number as designed by the American
Standards Association,

Ps
schedule number 1000
Ss
Ps: safe working pressure
Ss: safe working stress
Ten schedule numbers are in use at the present time. These are 10,
20, 30, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 140 and 160. For pipe diameters up to
10 in, schedule 40 corresponds to standard pipe and schedule 80
corresponds to extra strong pipe.
Pipe sizes are based on the approximate diameter and are reported
as nominal pipe sizes. Although wall thickness varies depending on
the schedule number, the outside diameter of any pipe having a
given nominal size is constant and independent of the schedule
number. This permits the use of standard fittings and tools on pipes
of different schedule number.

1.
2.
3.

4.

5.
6.

piping system should be parallel and right angled

turns should be used
dismantling of the system should be easy for
cleaning or changing some parts
for ease of cleaning, spare connections should be
present. (e.g., tees or crosses should be substituted
for elbows)
if there is no pump and the flow is due to gravity
alone, the pipe diameter should be greater than the
required (also there should be few bends if possible)
if there are valves, the possibility of leakage should
be considered and precautions should be taken.
the valve should be placed with taps directed upside
and reached easily. there should be enough space
for fully opened position of the valve.

Fittings

Pipe fittings are the auxiliaries of the piping system

and are used for the following purposes;
To connect two pipes (nippels, couplings, flanges)
To change the direction of flow (bends, elbows)
To change the pipe diameter (concentric or eccentric
reducers)
Making connections with side parts (to tanks)
To close one end of the pipe (plugs)
To separate flow from main source to different lines
(tee, cross, lateral)

coupling

elbow

nippel

tee
cross

flange

Valves

i.
ii.

Despite the variety in their design, all valves have a

common primary purpose; to slow down or stop the
flow of fluid. Therefore valves can be divided into
two broad classes
Shut-off valves, with the purpose of to close off the
flow
Control valves, used to regulate flow.
In all cases control or stopping function is done by
placing an obstruction in the path of the fluid which
can be moved inside the casing with little or no
leakage of fluid to outside.
Valves serve not only to regulate the flow of fluids
but also to isolate piping or equipment for
maintenance without interrupting other connected
units.

Gate valves (slide valve)

In a gate valve the diameter of the opening through which
the fluid passes is nearly the same as that of the pipe and
the direction of the flow does not change. As a result, a
wide open gate valve introduces only a small pressure
drop. The disk is tapered and fits into tapered seat. When
the valve is open the disk rises into the bonnet, completely
out of the path of the fluid. Gate valves work best when fully
open or fully closed.
Gate valves may have non rising stems, inside-screw rising
stems or outside-screw rising stems. Rising stem valves
require more space but the position of the stem visually
indicates the position of the gate
Gate valves are used to minimize pressure drop in the
open position and to stop the flow of the fluid rather than to
regulate it.

Globe valves
Globe valves are widely used for controlling the flow rate of
the fluid. In a globe valve the fluid passes through a restricted
opening and changes direction several times.
Globe valves are also designed as either inside screw rising
stem or outside screw rising stem. Small valves are generally
are of inside-screw type, while in larger sizes the outside
screw type is preferred. In most designs the disks are free to
rotate on the stems, this prevents galling between the disk
and the seat.
Globe valves in horizontal lines prevent complete drainage.
This can be prevented by installing it with horizontal stem
position.

Diaphragm Valves
These valves are excellent for fluids containing suspended solids
and can be installed in any position. The only maintenance
required is replacement of the diaphragm which can be done
very quickly without removing the valve from the line.
Diaphragms are made of natural rubber, synthetic rubber or from
natural or synthetic rubbers covered with Teflon fluorocarbon
resins.

Check valves
A check valve permits flow in one direction only. It is opened by
the pressure of the fluid in the desired direction. When the flow
stops or tends to reverse the valve automatically closes.

Plug cocks
These valves are limited to low temperatures since differential
expansion between the plug and the body prevents functioning.

Ball valve
In these valves on - off action is performed with one movement
of valve arm. Although their use is easy, due to sudden closing
water hammer may take place.

Diaphragm Valves

Check valves

Plug valves

Ball valve

Pumps
Pumps are used to transfer fluids from one
location to another by increasing the pressure of
the fluid and supplying the driving force
necessary for flow.
Power in form of electrical or steam energy may
be transformed into mechanical energy which is
used to drive the pump. Part of this mechanical
energy is added to the fluid the as work energy
and the rest is lost as friction due to inefficiency
of the pump and the drive.
The different types of pumps can be classified
as

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Reciprocating or positive displacement pumps

Rotary positive displacement pumps
Rotary centrifugal pumps
Air displacement systems.


i.
ii.

iii.

iv.
v.
vi.

In pump selection
the amount of fluid that must be pumped.
the properties of the fluid
the density and viscosity of the fluid influence the power
requirement for a given set of operating conditions
corrosive properties of the fluid determine the acceptable materials
of construction
if solid particles are suspended in the fluid, this factor determines
the amount of clearance necessary and may eliminate the use of
certain pump types.
temperature, which in association with the vapor pressure of the
liquid influences the possibility of cavitation.
the increase in pressure of the fluid is due to the work input of the
pumps. the head change across the pump is influenced by
the inlet and downstream reservoir pressures
the change in vertical height of the delivery line
frictional effects as a major item in determining power requirement
type of flow distribution
type of power supply
cost and mechanical efficiency of the pumps.

Reciprocating or positive
displacement pumps

Piston pump

The piston pump consists of a cylinder with a reciprocating piston

connected to a rod which passes through a gland at the end of the
cylinder. The liquid enters from the suction line through a suction valve
and is discharged through a delivery valve. These pumps may be single
acting or double acting.
The theoretical delivery of a piston pump is equal to the total swept volume
of the cylinders. The actual delivery may be less than the theoretical
value with volumetric efficiency greater than 90%.
The piston pump can be directly driven by steam or electric motor.
The piston type pump is comparatively simple in construction and operates
with a high efficiency over a wide range of operating conditions. They
can handle viscous liquids and develop high pressures.
It can operate against a high head and does not require priming. However,
delivery is uneven and presents an uneven load on the driving
mechanism.
Since with a well maintained piston pump the volume delivered is
accurately known these pumps find use as metering pumps.

Plunger pump
Plunger pumps differ form piston pumps in that
they have one or constant diameter plungers
reciprocating through packing glands and
displacing liquid from cylinders in which there is
considerable radial clearance. They are always
single acting in the sense that only one end of
the plunger is used in pumping the liquid.
Plunger pumps are available with one, two,
three, four, five or even more cylinders. Simplex
and duplex units are often built in a horizontal
design. Those with three or more cylinders are
usually of vertical design. The driver may be an
electric motor, a steam or gas engine or a steam
turbine.

Diaphragm pump
The diaphragm pump has been developed for
handling corrosive liquids and those containing
suspensions of solids. These pumps perform
similarly to piston and plunger pumps but
reciprocating driving member is a flexible
diaphragm made of metal, rubber, plastic or
leather. The chief advantage of this arrangement is
the elimination of all packing and seals exposed to
the liquid being pumped. This is important for
equipment required to handle hazardous or toxic
liquids.
The movement of the fluid is transmitted by means of
the flexible diaphragm to the liquid to be pumped.
The only moving parts of the pump that are in
contact with the fluid are the valves and these can
be specially designed to handle the material.

Rotary Positive Displacement

Pumps
Gear pumps
Gear pumps are the most widely used of the positive action rotary
pumps. Two gear wheels operate inside a casing. One of the
gear wheels is driven and the other rotates in mesh with it. The
impellers rotate with extremely small clearance between them
and between the surfaces of the impellers and casing. The two
gear wheels rotate in the casing, the suction connection is at the
bottom. The pumped liquid flows into the spaces between the
impeller teeth as these cavities pass the suction opening. The
liquid is then carried around the casing to the discharge opening.
Gear pump is a positive displacement pump and will deliver against
high pressures. The delivery is almost independent of pressure
and priming is not necessary.
The main advantage of the gear pump over the reciprocating pump
is that it gives an even delivery and can be directly connected to
an electric motor drive. It will handle liquids of high viscosities,
however, cannot be used for suspensions since the spaces
between the gear teeth are comparatively small.

Peristaltic pump
Peristaltic pump is a special form of pumps in
which a length of silicone rubber or other elastic
tubing is compressed in stages by means of a
rotor. The tubing is fitted to a curved track
mounted concentrically with a rotor carrying
three rollers. As the rollers rotate, they flatten
the tube against the track at the points of
contact. These flats move the fluid by the
positive displacement and the flow can be
precisely controlled by the speed of the motor.
These pumps have been particularly useful for
biological fluids where all forms of contact ust be
avoided. They are suitable for emulsions,
creams and similar fluids in laboratories and
small plants.
These pumps may conveniently be used as
metering pumps for dosage processes.

Screw pump
A modification of the helical pump is the screw
pump. In the two-rotator version in which he
liquid is fed to either center or the ends,
depending upon the direction of rotation, and
progresses axially in the cavities formed by the
meshing threads or teeth. In three-rotor versions,
the center rotor is the driving member while the
other two are driven.
Screw pumps because of multiple arms that reduce
slip are well adapted for producing higher
pressure rises, especially when handling viscous
liquids.

Rotary centrifugal pumps

Centrifugal pump
The centrifugal pump is the type most widely used in the processing
industry for transferring liquids of all types (raw materials, materials in
manufacture and finished products) as well as for general services of
water supply, boiler feed, condenser circulation, condensate return etc.
In this type of pump the fluid is fed to the centre of a rotating impeller and is
thrown outward by centrifugal action. As a result of the high speed of
rotation the liquid acquires a high kinetic energy and the pressure
difference between the suction and the delivery sides arises from the
conversion of kinetic energy into pressure energy.
The impeller consists of a series of curved vanes so shaped that the flow
within the pump is as smooth as possible. The greater the number of
vanes on the impeller, the greater is the control over the direction of
motion of the liquid and hence the smaller are the losses due to
turbulence and circulation between the vanes.
In the open impeller the vanes are fixed to a central hub, whereas in the
closed type the vanes are held between two supporting plates and
leakage across the impeller is reduced. In addition, the angle of the tips
of the blades determines the operating characteristics of the pump.

A centrifugal pump will only operate effectively if a net positive suction

head (NPSH) is available. These pumps require a minimum NPSH,
which increases with flow rate, if cavitation is to be avoided. The pump
manufacturers provide this data in a characteristic curve showing
required NPSH versus capacity. To avoid cavitation the system must
be designed so that the available NPSH exceeds the required value at
the operating conditions.
The available NPSH is given by the equation:

NPSH z s

( Ps Pvp )

h fs

Where,
zs is the potential head on the suction side of the pump
Ps is the pressure of the atmosphere on the suction side
Pvp is vapor pressure of the liquid
hfs is the head loss due to friction on the suction side
is the density of the liquid
g is acceleration due to gravity

 When

running at constant speed, the head

developed by a centrifugal pump varies with
the flow rate. At zero flow the pump head is
maximum and as the rate of flow increases
the head developed falls. This relationship for
a particular pump is provided by pump
manufacturers. Since system heads vary with
the flow rate they must be calculated for
different flow rates. These are also shown
head versus capacity curves.

The advantages of centrifugal pumps:

1.

its simple in construction and can be made in a

wide range of materials
there is a complete absence of valves
it operates at high speed and can be coupled
directly to an electrical motor. In general, the
higher the speed, the smaller the pump and
motor for a given duty.
it gives a steady delivery
maintenance costs are lower than for any other
type of pump
no damage is done to the pump if the delivery
line becomes blocked.
it is much smaller than other pumps of equal
capacity.
liquids containing high proportions of suspended
solids are readily handled

2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.


1.

2.
3.
4.

5.

The disadvantages of the centrifugal pumps

the single stage pump will not develop a high
pressure. multistage pumps will develop greater
heads but they are much more expensive and
cannot readily be made in corrosion resistant
material because of their greater complexity.
it operates at high efficiency over a limited range
of condition.
its not usually self-priming
if a non-return valve is not incorporated in the
delivery or suction line the liquid will run back
into the suction tank.
very viscous fluids cannot be handled efficiently.

Air displacement systems

All are based displacement of air with the amount of fluid to be
transferred.
Air lifts
Suction pipe is immersed in the fluid to be transferred and
pressurized air is injected. Since no flexible parts are under the
fluid level use is quite easy.
Acid eggs or blow cases
These are closed systems where air inlet to the tank leads to
controlled flow of fluid from the tank. They can be manual,
automatic or semi-automatic.
Jet pumps
In jet pumps fluid is passed through a nozzle, and with the pressure
drop after the nozzle the fluid gets speed.

Comparison for pumps

Positive displacement equipments in general, handle smaller
quantities of fluids at higher discharge pressures than centrifugal
equipments do.
Positive displacement pumps are not subject to air binding and
are usually self-priming.
In both positive displacement pumps and blowers the discharge
rate is nearly independent of the discharge pressure, so that
these machines are extensively used for controlling and
metering flow.
Reciprocating devices require considerable maintenance but can
produce the highest pressures.
Rotary pumps work best on fairly viscous lubricating fluids,
discharging a steady stream at moderate to high pressures.
They can not be used with slurries.
The discharge line of a positive displacement pump cannot be
closed without breaking the pump, so that a bypass line with a
pressure relief valve is required

 Centrifugal

pumps deliver fluid at a

uniform pressure without shocks or
pulsations.
They run at higher speeds than positive
displacement equipments and are
connected to the motor drive directly
through a gear box.
The discharge line can be completely
closed without damage.
Centrifugal pumps can handle a wide
variety of corrosive liquids and slurries.

Overall mechanical energy balance for an

incompressible fluid

1 2
P2 P1
2
(v 2,av v 1,av ) g ( z2 z1 )
F Ws 0
2

Bernoulli equation where no mechanical energy is

added and there is no frictional losses

v 21 P1
v 2 2 P2
z1 g

z2 g

An optimum design is based on the best or most

favorable conditions.
In optimization studies critical stage is to determine
what factor is to be optimized. (typical factors are:
cost, profit, amount etc.)
In order to improve the quality of optimum design

objective
constraints
degrees of freedom

is to be defined clearly.

General procedure for solving optimization problems

1.

Analyze the process itself so that the process variables and

specific characteristics of interest are defined. (i.e., make a list of
all variables)
Determine the criterion for optimization and specify the objective
function in terms of the variables together with coefficients.
Develop a valid model with mathematical expressions that relates
the input-output variables of the process and associated
coefficients.
If the problem formulation is too large in scope;
Break it up into manageable parts and/or
Simplify the objective function and the model
Apply a suitable optimization technique to the mathematical
statement of the problem
Check the answers and examine the sensitivity of the result to
changes in the coefficients in the problem and the assumptions.

2.
3.

4.
a.
b.
5.
6.