DATA COMMUNICATION

K K SHARMA
Associate Prof (ECE)

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DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
UNIT-1

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DATA
(1) Distinct pieces of information, usually formatted in a special

way. All software is divided into two general categories: data and
programs. Programs are collections of instructions for
manipulating data.
Data can exist in a variety of forms -- as numbers or text on
pieces of paper, as bits and bytes stored in electronic memory, or
as facts stored in a person's mind.
Strictly speaking, data is the plural of datum, a single piece of
information. In practice, however, people use data as both the
singular and plural form of the word.
(2) The term data is often used to distinguish binary machinereadable information from textual human-readable information.
For example, some applications make a distinction between data
files (files that contain binary data) and text files (files that
contain ASCII data).
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UNIT 1
DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
Introduction,
digital communication,
Shannon limit for information capacity,
digital radio,
digital amplitude modulation,
frequency shift keying (FSK),
phase shift keying (PSK),
quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM),
band width efficiency,
carrier recovery,
differential phase shift keying (DPSK),
clock recovery, probability of error & bit error rate,
trellis encoding.
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Introduction to communication
People can communicate with other people. This is one

unmistakable characteristic that points out the difference between

humans and other animals (i.e. the ability to communicate).
During the early days, communication among humans was limited
by distance.
People communicated by natural senses of hearing and sight or by
written words. Actual words could be conveyed although the
process was very slow.
People searched for better ways of communicating faster and over
long distances.
Smoke signals and flag signaling were used to send messages.
These were used for centuries until the nineteenth century when
electrical signals came in use.
In 1869, the telephone was invented. This marked a real
breakthrough. At that time, it seemed like a miracle to be able to
talk to someone so many miles away as easily and quickly as they
were standing next to you. The arrival of wireless communication
nearly three decades after the Telephone, completed the
breakthrough.
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Communication is the process of conveying

information at a distance or it is the basic process of

exchanging information.
In other words, communication is the science of
transmitting, receiving and processing of information.
Electrical communication is a process in which the
message or information is transmitted from one point to
another point or from one person to another in the form
of electrical signal, through some communication link.
The electronic equipments or devices which are used
for the purpose of communication are known as
communication equipments and integrating of different
communication equipments for the purpose of
communication
form a communication system. 5/21/15
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Electrical communication
system
In communication, the physical information, such

as sounds, pictures, words etc., is converted into

an electrical message called signal and this
electrical signal is being conveyed at the far
place, and there, these electrical signals are
reconverted into physical message.
Fig-1, shows the simple block diagram of electrical
communication system and it has three main
basic components,
1. Transmitter
2. Communication channel or transmission media
3. Receiver
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Simple block diagram of

communication system

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TYPES OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Broadly we classify the communication

system in two types depending upon the

type of the signal which is used in the
communication system for processing,
namely
I. Analog communication system
II. Digital communication system

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ANALOG COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

We have described an electrical communication system in

rather broad terms based on the implicit assumption that the

message signal is a continuous time-varying waveform.
We refer to such continuous-time signal waveforms as analog
signals and to the corresponding information sources that
produce such signals as analog sources.
Analog signals can be transmitted directly via carrier
modulation over the communication channel and
demodulated accordingly at the receiver. We call such a
communication system an analog communication system.
In general, an analog communication system can be
represented by the functional block diagram shown in Fig.- 2.
The information generated by the source may be of the form
of voice (speech source), a picture (image source), or plain
text.
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Functional block diagram of an

analog communication system

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DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

The communication system which uses the

digital signals as input is known as digital

communication system.
An analog source output may be converted
into a digital form and the message can be
transmitted via digital modulation and
demodulated as a digital signal at the
receiver.

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Typical block diagram of a

digital communication system

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In a digital communication system, the

functional operations performed at the

transmitter and receiver must be expanded
to include message signal discretization at
the transmitter and message signal
synthesis or interpolation at the receiver.
Additional functions include redundancy
removal, and channel coding and decoding.

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Information source
The source output may be either an analog

signal, such as audio or video signal, or a

digital signal, such as the output of a computer
which is discrete in time and has a finite
number of output characters.
The analog information is converted to an
equivalent digital signal by sampling and
quantization that process is known as Analog
to Digital conversion (ADC). The A/D
produces analog-to-digital conversion (for
analog source) including sampling and
quantizing.
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 Sampling: Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)

Converting the continuous input to discrete sequence.
Quantization: Pulse code modulation (PCM)
Encoding each quantized sample into a digital word

including Uniform and Nonuniform Quantization

The discrete information sources are characterized by
source alphabet, symbol rate, source alphabet probabilities
and probabilistic dependence of symbols in a sequence.
The source alphabet will have letters, digits, and special
characters available from the information source.
The symbol rate is the rate at which the information
sources the symbols / characters and its unit is symbol /
sec.

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Source Encoding
The process of efficiently converting the output of either an

analog or a digital source into a sequence of binary digits is

called source encoding or data compression, such as
Huffman coding, JPEG (for picture), MPEG (for video).
There are few important parameters used for source encoder
as follows:
Block size: Block size gives the number of distinct code-words
that the encoder can represent and depends upon the
number of bits in the codeword. As an example, the block size
of 25 i.e., 32 code-words.
Code-word length: It is number of bits used to represent the
codeword. As example, if 5 bits are assigned to each codeword, then code-word length will be 5 bits.
Average data rate: It is the output bits per second from the
source encoder.
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Channel Encoder
The purpose of the channel encoder is to introduce, in a

controlled manner, some redundancy in the binary

information sequence which can be used at the receiver to
overcome the effects of noise and interference encountered
in the transmission of the signal through the channel.
The channel encoder provides a different type of
communication security than that provided by the encryptor.
By adding some known redundancy to the message. Error
control is achieved by adding extra bits to the output of the
source encoded data. The extra redundancy bits added do
not convey any information but provides detection and
correction of errors in the message bits at the receiver.
The coding and decoding process at the encoder and
decoder needs the memory for processing of binary data.
Typical channel codes: block codes, convolutional codes.
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Digital Modulation
Analog modulation methods are employed in analog

communication system such as amplitude, frequency and

phase modulation. A bit sequence cannot be transmitted
from channel (fiber, cable, atmosphere and other
transmission medium) directly. We must use the bit
sequence to generate appropriate digital waveform, which
is suitable to transmission medium. For example Pulse
waveform (baseband signal) can directly transmitted
through cable. For wireless, the baseband signals must be
shift to a frequency band (RF signal), which is suitable to
transmit through atmosphere.
In digital communication system, digital modulation
techniques are used such as amplitude shift keying (ASK),
frequency shift keying (FSK), phase shift keying (PSK) and
minimum shift keying (MSK).
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The output of channel encoder is a digital signal

composed of symbols. These digital symbols can be

transmitted directly on a physical channel after
passing through a line coding system (such as NRZ,
RZ, Manchester, Differential Manchester).
This type of transmission is referred to as base band
modulation because the base band signal has been
coded and transmitted at the base band frequency
only.
However, for wireless communication this digital signal
is carrier modulated using sinusoidal as carrier signal.
Carrier modulation enables efficient transmission of
the signal by minimizing the effect of channel noise.
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Communication Channel
The communications channel is the physical medium that

is used to send the signal from the transmitter to the receiver.

There are two types of channels, namely
Point to point channel and broadcast channels.
In point to point channel usually employ a variety of physical
media, including wire lines, optical fiber cables, and wireless
(microwave radio) such as telephone channels.
On the other hand, in broadcast channels provide a capability
where many receiving stations can be reached simultaneously
from a single transmitter.
In wireless transmission, the channel is usually the
atmosphere (free space). Examples of broadcast channels are
satellite communications, television broadcasting, radio
broadcasting etc.

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Advantages of digital
communication
Reduction of noise is possible in digital communication system.
Reduction of distortion and other impairments is possible in

digital communication system.

Error detection and correction is possible in digital
communication system that will reduce the probabilities of error
by employing channel encoder.
Regeneration of signal is easier than analog communication
system.
Signal processing and storage is easier due to use of digital
signal processing techniques and digital computer.
Security of data is possible due to encryption and decryption
and spread spectrum coding provides antijamming facility.
Data compression and image processing is possible in digital
communication system.
Large amount of noise interference may be tolerated.
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Use of VLSI technology may be possible.

Handling of multimedia information such as integration of voice,

video and data is easier.

There are many signal processing algorithms can be used to
increase transmission
rate and reliability of digital
communication system.
Digital circuits are more reliable and can be produced at lower
cost than analog circuits, such as DSP, FPGA and ASIC.
Digital signal is less subject to distortion and interference than
analog signal.
The digital signal is more easer to reborn or regenerated,
compared to analog signals because:
Digital signal has only two states (0 or 1)
On the contrary, analog signal are not two-state signal.

It can take an infinite variety of amplitude.

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Disadvantages of Digital
communication

Digital communication requires more

bandwidth than analog communication.

It needs synchronization

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Limitations of Communication
System
The primary limitations of information

transmission by electrical means are

bandwidth and noise.
Bandwidth Limitation
Noise Limitation

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Note:
In this TEXT, we use the term
bandwidth to refer to the property of a
medium or the width of a single
spectrum.

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Figure 3.13

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Bandwidth

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Example 3
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves
with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz,
what is the bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all
components have a maximum amplitude of 10 V.

Solution
B = fh fl = 900 100 = 800 Hz
The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700,
and 900 (see Figure 13.4 )

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Figure 3.14

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Example 3

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Example 4
A signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency
is 60 Hz. What is the lowest frequency? Draw the
spectrum if the signal contains all integral frequencies of
the same amplitude.

Solution
B = fh fl
20 = 60 fl
fl = 60 20 = 40 Hz
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Figure 3.15

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Example 4

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Example 5
A signal has a spectrum with frequencies between 1000
and 2000 Hz (bandwidth of 1000 Hz). A medium can pass
frequencies from 3000 to 4000 Hz (a bandwidth of 1000
Hz). Can this signal faithfully pass through this medium?

Solution
The answer is definitely no. Although the signal can have
the same bandwidth (1000 Hz), the range does not
overlap. The medium can only pass the frequencies
between 3000 and 4000 Hz; the signal is totally lost.
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3.3 Digital Signals

Bit Interval and Bit Rate
As a Composite Analog Signal
Through Wide-Bandwidth Medium
Through Band-Limited Medium
Versus Analog Bandwidth
Higher Bit Rate
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A digital signal

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Example 6
A digital signal has a bit rate of 2000 bps. What is the
duration of each bit (bit interval)

Solution
The bit interval is the inverse of the bit rate.
Bit interval = 1/ 2000 s = 0.000500 s
= 0.000500 x 106 s = 500 s

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Bit rate and bit interval

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Figure Digital versus analog

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Note:
A digital signal is a composite signal
with an infinite bandwidth.

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Note:
The bit rate and the bandwidth are
proportional to each other.

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Data Rate Limit

Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate

Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
Using Both Limits
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Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate

In 1924, Henry Nyquist, has realized that even a perfect

channel (i.e. noiseless channel) has a finite transmission

capacity. He derived as expression for the maximum data rate
for a finite bandwidth noiseless channel.
Nyquist proved that any arbitrary signal has been passed
through a low pass filter of bandwidth B, the filtered signal
can be reconstructed completely by making only 2B (exact)
sample per second. Sampling the line faster than 2B times
per second is of no use because the higher frequency
components such sampling could recover have already been
filtered out.
According to Nyquists theorem, if the signal consists of V
discrete levels, the maximum data rate can be given as

Maximum data rate = 2B log2 V bits/sec

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Example
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000
Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The
maximum bit rate can be calculated as

Bit Rate = 2 3000 log2 2 = 6000 bps

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Example 8
Consider the same noiseless channel, transmitting a signal
with four signal levels (for each level, we send two bits).
The maximum bit rate can be calculated as:

Bit Rate = 2 x 3000 x log2 4 = 12,000 bps

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Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity

In 1948, Claude Shannon carried Nyquists

work further and extended it to the practical

care of a channel subject to random noise. All
practical channels are noisy channels and
random noise deteriorates the situation
rapidly. It is always that random or thermal
noise present due to the motion of the
molecules in the system. The amount of
thermal noise present is determined by the
ratio of the signal power to the noise power.
This ratio is called signal to noise ratio.
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Now according to Shannons theorem, that

the maximum data rate of a noisy channel

where bandwidth is B Hz, and has SNR is
S/N, is given by.

Maximum number of bits/sec = B log2

(1+S/N)

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Example 9
Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value
of the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other words,
the noise is so strong that the signal is faint. For this
channel the capacity is calculated as
C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = B log2 (1 + 0)
= B log2 (1) = B 0 = 0

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Example 10
We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a
regular telephone line. A telephone line normally has a
bandwidth of 3000 Hz (300 Hz to 3300 Hz). The signalto-noise ratio is usually 3162. For this channel the
capacity is calculated as
C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = 3000 log2 (1 + 3162)
= 3000 log2 (3163)
C = 3000 11.62 = 34,860 bps
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Example 11
We have a channel with a 1 MHz bandwidth. The SNR
for this channel is 63; what is the appropriate bit rate and
signal level?

Solution
First, we use the Shannon formula to find our upper
limit.
C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = 106 log2 (1 + 63) = 106 log2 (64) = 6 Mbps

Then we use the Nyquist formula to find the

number of signal levels.
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4 Mbps = 2 1 MHz log2 L L = 4

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SHANNON-LIMIT for
information Capacity

This theorem is concerned with the rate of transmission of information

over a transmission media or communication channel. The term

communication channel includes all the features and components parts
of the transmission system which introduce noise, or limit the
bandwidth.
Shannons theorem defines that it is possible, in principle, to device a
means whereby a communication system will transmit information with
an arbitrarily small probability of error provided that the information rate
R is less than or equal to a C the channel capacity.

RC. (1)
Where R= information rate

C= channel capacity
It is commonly known as Shannon-Hartley capacity theorem. According
to this the system capacity(c) is a function of the average received
signal power s, the average noise power N, and bandwidth B. They
are related as:

C= Blog2 (1+S/N) (2)

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If bandwidth (B) is in hertz (Hz) and base is 2 of logarithmic then unit

of channel capacity, is bits/sec.

Theoretically as we have discussed in eqn-(1), it is possible to
transmit information over such a communication channel at any rate
R, where RC, with an arbitrarily small error.
The important feature of the theorem is that it indicates that for
RC, error free transmission is possible in the presence of noise.
There is another statement associated with this theorem, that is
given a source of M equally likely messages, with M>>1, which is
generating information at a rate R and given a channel with a
channel capacity C. if, now R>C, the probability of error is close to
unity for every possible set of M transmitter signals.
If the information rate R exceeds a specific value of channel capacity
C, the error probability approaches unity, as M increases.
The channel capacity C decides the maximum permissible rate at
which an error free transmission of information is possible through it.

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