Chapter 1

Introduction to
Human Anatomy and
Physiology

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Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy deals with the structure (morphology) of

the body and its parts, in other words, what are
things called?

Physiology studies the functions of these parts or

asks the question, how do they work?

The two disciplines are closely interrelated

because the functional role of a part depends on
how it is constructed.

Homeostasis:

Maintenance of a stable internal environment is

called homeostasis.
Homeostasis is regulated through control systems
which have receptors, a set point and effectors in
common. Examples include:
a. Homeostatic mechanisms regulate body
temperature in a manner similar to the
functioning of a home
heating thermostat.
b. Another homeostatic mechanism employs
pressure- sensitive receptors to regulate blood
pressure.

Homeostasis:

Many of the body's homeostatic

controls are negative feedback
mechanisms.
Each individual uses homeostatic
mechanisms to keep body levels
within a normal range; normal
ranges can vary from one
individual to the next.

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Levels of Organization:

Organization of the Human Body

Major features of the human body

include its cavities, membranes, and
organ systems.

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Body Cavities:
The body can be divided into an appendicular
portion (upper and lower limbs) and an axial
portion (head, neck, and trunk), which includes
a dorsal and a ventral cavity. Organs within
these cavities are called viscera.

Organ Systems:
Body Covering
a. The integumentary system,
including skin, hair, nails, and
various glands, covers the body,
senses changes
outside the
body, and helps regulate
body
temperature.

Support and Movement

a. The skeletal system, made up of
bones and ligaments. It supports,
protects,
provides frameworks,
stores inorganic salts, and
houses
blood-forming tissues.
b. The muscular system consists of the
muscles
that provide body
movement, posture, and body heat.

Integration and Coordination

a. The nervous system consists of the
brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sense
organs. It
integrates information
incoming
information
from receptors
and sends
impulses to
muscles and
glands.
b. The endocrine system, including all of
the
glands that secrete hormones,
helps to
integrate metabolic functions

Transport
a. The cardiovascular system, made up
of the heart and blood vessels,
distributes oxygen
and nutrients
throughout the body while
removing wastes from the cells.
b. The lymphatic system, consisting of
lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, thymus,
and spleen, drains excess tissue fluid and
includes cells of immunity.

Absorption and Excretion

a. The digestive system is made up of the
mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines
and accessory
organs. It receives,
breaks down, and
absorbs nutrients.
b. The respiratory system exchanges
gases between the blood and air and is
made up
of the lungs and
passageways.
c. The urinary system, consisting of the
kidneys,
ureters, bladder, and
urethra,
removes wastes from the
blood and helps to
maintain water
and electrolyte balance.

Reproduction
a. The reproductive system produces new
organisms.
i. The male reproductive system consists of
the testes, accessory organs, and
vessels that conduct sperm to the penis.
ii. The female reproductive system consists
of ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina,
and external genitalia. The female
reproductive system also houses the
developing offspring.

Anatomical Terminology
Relative Positions:
1. Terms of relative position are used
to describe the location of a part
relative to
another part.
2. Terms of relative position include:
superior, inferior, anterior, posterior,
medial, lateral, proximal, distal,
superficial (peripheral), and deep.

Body Sections:
1. A sagittal section divides the body into
right and left portions.
2. A transverse section divides the body
into
superior and inferior portions. It
is often
called a cross section.
3. A coronal section divides the body into
anterior and posterior sections.

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Body Regions
1. The abdominal area can be divided
into
nine regions.
2. Terms used to refer to various body
regions are depicted in Fig. 1.13.

Chapter 2
Chemical Basis of Life

Introduction:
A. Chemistry deals with the composition
of substances and how they change.
B. A knowledge of chemistry is
necessary
for the understanding of
physiology because of the importance
of chemicals in body processes.

Structure of Matter:
A.

Elements and Atoms:

1.

Matter is anything that takes up space.

2.

All matter is composed of elements, 92 of

which occur naturally.

3.

Living organisms require about 20

elements, of which oxygen, carbon,
hydrogen, and nitrogen are most abundant.

4.

Elements are composed of atoms; atoms of

different elements vary in size and in how
they interact.

C. Bonding of Atoms:
1. Atoms form bonds by
gaining, losing, or
sharing electrons.
2. Electrons are found in
shells
around
the
nucleus.
a. The first energy shell
holds two electrons; the
other energy shells each
hold
eight
electrons
when on the outside.

C. Bonding of Atoms:
3.

Atoms with incompletely

filled outer shells tend to
be reactive to form stable
outer shells of 8.

4.

When atoms gain or lose

electrons, they become
ions with a charge.
Whether they gain or lose
will depend on how many
they have in the outer
shell to start with.

5.

Oppositely-charged ions
attract each other and
form an ionic bond.

E. Formulas:
1. A molecular formula represents
the
numbers and types of
atoms in a molecule.
2. Various representations, called
structural
formulas, can be
used to illustrate molecules.

Chemical Reactions

H2O + CO2 > HCO3- +H+

G. Acids and Bases:

1. Substances that release ions in water
are called electrolytes.
2. Electrolytes that release hydrogen
ions in water are called acids.
3. Electrolytes that release ions that
combine with hydrogen ions in water
are called bases.

G. Acids and Bases:

4. The concentrations of H+ &
OH- in the body is very
important to physiology.
5. pH
represents
the
concentration
of
hydrogen
ions [H+] in solution.

Chemical Constituents of
Cells:
A.
Compounds that contain both
hydrogen and carbon are called organic,
the others are inorganic

1.

B. Inorganic Substances
Water

a. Water is the most abundant compound

in
living things and makes up
two-thirds of the
weight of adults.
b. Water is an important solvent so most
metabolic reactions occur in water.

B.

Inorganic Substances

2. Oxygen
a. Oxygen is needed to release energy from
nutrients and is used to drive the cell's metabolism.
3. Carbon Dioxide
a. Carbon dioxide is released as a waste
product
during energy-releasing metabolic reactions.

1.

C. Organic Substances:

Carbohydrates

a. Carbohydrates provide energy for cellular

activities and are composed of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen.
b. Carbohydrates are made from monosaccharides
(simple sugars);
disaccharides are two
monosaccharides joined together; complex
carbohydrates (polysaccharides), such as starch,
are built of many sugars.

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2. Lipids:

a. Lipids are insoluble in water and

include
fats,
phospholipids,
and steroids.
b. Fats supply energy, are composed of
oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen, and are
built
from glycerol and three
fatty acids.

2. Lipids:
c. Phospholipids contain glycerol, two
fatty acids, and a phosphate group,
and are
important in cell structures.
d. Steroids are complex ring structures,
and include cholesterol, which is used
to synthesize the sex hormones.

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3. Proteins:
a. Proteins have a great variety of
functions in the body---as structural
materials, as energy sources, as
certain hormones, as receptors on cell
membranes, as antibodies, and as
enzymes to catalyze metabolic
reactions.

3. Proteins:
b. Proteins contain C, O, H, and nitrogen
atoms; some also contain sulfur.
c. Building blocks of proteins are the
amino acids, each of which has a
carboxyl group, an amino group and a
side chain called the R group.

3. Proteins:
d. Proteins have complex shapes held
together by hydrogen bonds.
e. Protein shapes, which determine how
proteins function, can be altered
(denatured) by pH, temperature,
radiation, or
chemicals.

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4. Nucleic Acids:

a. Nucleic acids form genes and take

part protein synthesis.
b. They
contain
carbon,
hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus,
which are bound into building blocks
called nucleotides.

4. Nucleic Acids:
c. Nucleic acids are of two major types:
DNA (with deoxyribose) and RNA
(with ribose).
d. RNA (ribonucleic acid) functions in
protein
synthesis;
DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) stores the
molecular code in genes.

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Chapter 3
Cells

Introduction:

A.
The human body consists of 75
trillion cells that vary considerably in
shape and
size yet have much in
common.
B.
Differences in cell shape make
different
functions possible.

A Composite Cell:
A. A composite cell includes many
different cell structures.
B. A cell consists of three main
parts---the nucleus, the cytoplasm,
and the cell membrane.
C. Within
the
cytoplasm
are
specialized
organelles
that
perform specific functions for the
cell.

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D. Cell Membrane:
1.The cell membrane regulates the
movement of substances in and out of
the cell, participates in signal
transduction, and helps cells adhere to
other cells.

D. Cell Membrane:
2.General Characteristics
a.
The cell membrane is
extremely thin and
selectively
permeable.
b.
It has a complex surface
with
adaptations to
increase
surface
area.

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D. Cell Membrane:
3. Cell Membrane Structure:
a. The basic framework of the cell
membrane consists of a double layer of
phospholipids,
with fatty acid tails turned
inward.
b. Molecules that are soluble in lipids
(gases,
steroid hormones) can pass
through the lipid bilayer.

D. Cell Membrane:
c. Embedded
cholesterol
molecules
strengthen the membrane and help make
the membrane less permeable to
water-soluble substances.
d. Many types of proteins are found in the cell
membrane,
including
transmembrane
proteins and peripheral membrane proteins.

D. Cell Membrane:
e. Membrane proteins perform a variety of
functions and vary in shape.
f. Some proteins function as receptors on the
cell surface, starting signal transduction.
g. Other proteins aid the passage of molecules
and ions.

D. Cell Membrane:
h. Proteins protruding into the cell anchor
supportive rods and tubules.
i. Still other proteins have carbohydrates
attached; these complexes are used in cell
identification. Membrane proteins called
cellular adhesion molecules (CAMs)
help
determine one cells interactions with
others.

A.

B.

Movements Through Cell

Membranes
The cell membrane
controls what passes
through it.

Mechanisms of movement across the

membrane may be passive, requiring no
energy from the cell (diffusion,
facilitated diffusion, osmosis, and
filtration) or active mechanisms,
requiring cellular energy (active
transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis).

Movements Through Cell

Membranes (cont.)
C. Passive Mechanisms
1.
Diffusion
a.
Diffusion is caused by the random
motion
of molecules and involves the
movement
of molecules from an
area of greater
concentration to
one of
lesser
concentration until
equilibrium is reached.

Movements Through Cell

Membranes (cont.)
C1b.

Diffusion enables oxygen and

carbon dioxide
molecules to
be exchanged between the air and
the blood in the lungs, and between
blood and tissue cells.

Movements Through Cell

Membranes
C2. Facilitated Diffusion
a.
Facilitated
diffusion
uses
membrane proteins that function as
carriers to move molecules
(such as
glucose) across the cell membrane.
b.
The number of carrier molecules
in the cell membrane limits the rate of
this process.

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Movements Through Cell

C3. Osmosis Membranes
a.
Osmosis is a special case of
diffusion in which water moves from
an area of greater water
concentration (where there is less
osmotic pressure) across a selectively
permeable membrane to an area of
lower water concentration (where
there is greater osmotic pressure).

Movements Through Cell

Membranes

A solution with the same osmotic

pressure as body fluids is called
isotonic; one with higher osmotic
pressure than body fluids is hypertonic;
one with lower osmotic pressure is
hypotonic.

Movements Through Cell

Membranes
C4. Filtration
a. Because of hydrostatic pressure,
molecules can be forced through
membranes by the process of filtration.
Blood pressure is a type of hydrostatic
pressure.

Movements Through Cell

Membranes
D. Active Mechanisms
1. Active Transport
a. Active transport uses ATP to move
molecules
from areas of low
concentration to areas of high
concentration through carrier
molecules
in cell membranes.
b. As much as 40% of a cell's energy
supply may be used to fuel this
process.

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G. Cell Differentiation
1. The process by which cells develop
into different types of cells with
specialized functions is called
differentiation.
2. Cell differentiation reflects genetic
control of the nucleus as
certain
genes are turned on while others are
turned off.

Cell Differentiation