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SphericalWavesand
Radiation
Antennasradiatesphericalwavesintofreespace
Receivingantennas,reciprocity,pathgainandpathloss
Noiseasalimittoreception
Raymodelforantennasaboveaplaneearthandina
streetcanyon
Cylindricalwaves
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
RadioChannelEncompassesCables,
AntennasandEnvironmentBetween
RadioChannel
Transmitting Receiving
Antenna
Antenna
Tx
Information
Rx
Cable
Transmitterimpressesinformation
ontothevoltageofahighpower
RFcarrierfortransmission
throughtheaircalledmodulation
PolytechnicU
Cable
Information
Receiverextractstheinformation
fromthevoltageofalowpower
receivedsignalcalled
demodulation
2002byH.L.Bert
ExamplesofDifferentCellularAntennas
Halfwavedipole
/2
Fullwavemonopole
abovegroundplane
/2
Dipoleincorner
reflector
/4
/4
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
PCSAntennas
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
BaseStationAntennas
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
AntennasRadiateElectromagneticWaves
Transmitting
Antenna
EMwaveshave:
ElectricfieldE(V/m)
MagneticfieldH(A/m)
Cable
EandH
Perpendiculartoeachotherandtodirection
ofpropagationPolarization
Amplitudedependsondirectionof
propagationRadiationPattern
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
E
H
SphericalWavesRadiatedbyAntennas
z
Forlarger,localizedcurrentsources
radiatefieldsintheformofSpherical
Waves
ar
H
I terminalCurrent
Z constantwithunitsofohms
120
ejkr
E =aE ZI
f (,)
r
1
H = ar E
ar =aE =1
RadialPowerFlux
2
ZI
1
1
2
2
P = Re{ E H } =ar
f
(
,
)
(watts/m
)
2
2 r 2
Antennapattern= f ,
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
PowerRadiationPattern
P()
Powerdensityradiatedbyantenna
P()=ExH*watts/m2
Poyntingvectorintheradialdirection
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
OmnidirectionalAntennas
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
ParabolicReflectorAntenna
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
10
HornAntennas
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
11
LogPeriodicDipoleArray
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
12
DualPolarizationPatchAntenna
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
13
TotalRadiatedPower
PT =
P a dA,
r
wheredA=r2 sin dd
sphere
2
1
2
2
PT = ZI f (,) sindd
2
0 0
dA
ar
r
PTisindependentofr,asrequiredby
conservationofpower.
f ,
Normalizationforis:
2
f (,)
42 area of sphere
sindd =4
0 0
Then: PT =
4
2
ZI and P =arPT
2
PolytechnicU
f (,)
4r
2002byH.L.Bert
14
AntennaGainandRadiationResistancefor
NoResistiveLoss
Directivegain =g()=|f()|2 and
Antennagain =G =Max.valueof g(
Ifisotropicantennascouldexist,then |f()|2=1,G=1
RadiationResistanceRr=effectiveresistanceseenatantennaterminals
1 2
4
I Rr = PT =
ZI
2
2
4 2
Rr =
Z
Z =
Rr
4
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
15
AntennaDirectivity,Gain,Efficiency
Maximum Pointing Vector
Pm(r)
Directivity=
=
Average Pointing VectorPav(r)
Pm(r)
=
PT (4r2 )
Pm(r)
Gain=
includes the effect of antenna resistan
2
Pterminal (4r )
Efficiency=
PT
Pterminal
PolytechnicU
Gain
=
Directivity
2002byH.L.Bert
16
Short(Hertzian)DipoleAntenna
The radiated field can be
z
L<<
I(z)
ejkr
E =aE ZI
sin
r
if
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
f () =
3
sin
2
Z =j
2 L
3 2
2
G = f (90) =3/2
2
Rr =
2 L
3
17
HalfWaveDipoleAntenna
Theradiatedfieldcanbewritten:
z
/4
H
I(z)
ejkr
E =aE ZI
f ()
r
where
cos cos
2
f () =
0.781sin
0.781
Z =j
2
2
G = f (90) =1.64
/4
PolytechnicU
10logG =2.2dB
2
4 0.781
Rr =
j
=73
2002byH.L.Bert
18
SummaryofAntennaRadiation
Radiationinfreespacetakestheformofspherical
waves
E,Handrformarighthandsystem
Fieldamplitudesvaryas1/rtoconservepower
Powervariesas1/r2,andvarieswithdirection
fromtheantenna
Directiondependencegivesthedirectivityand
gainoftheantenna
Radiationresistanceistheterminalrepresentation
oftheradiatedpower
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
19
ReceivingAntennasandReciprocity
+
V1
I2
I1
Foralineartwoport
V1=Z11I1+Z12I2
Reciprocity
Z12=Z21
V2=Z21I1+Z22I2
EquivalentCircuit
IfI2=0,V2=Z12I1~1/r
Forrlarge,
|Z12|<<|Z11|,|Z22|
PolytechnicU
+
V2
I1
Z11Z12
V1
2002byH.L.Bert
Z22Z12
Z12
I2
V2
20
CircuitRelationforRadiationintoFreeSpace
Z11Z12
+
V1
I1
Z22Z12
+
V2 (opencircuit)
Z12
V1=Z11I1
V2=VOC=Z12I1
Transmitted power
2
PT =1/2
( )Re( V1I 1* ) =(1/2)Re( Z11 I1 ) =(1/2)Rr1 I 1
where
Rr1 =radiation resistance of antenna 1
Therefore
: Z11 =Rr1 +jX1
Similarily
: Z22 =Rr2 +jX2
where
Rr2 =radiation resistance of antenna 2
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
21
ReceivedPowerandPathLossRatio
I1
+
V1
Z11Z12
Z22Z12
Z12 V
I2
+
V2 Z22* MatchedLoad
Rr2jX2
Z12
1
1 I 1Z12
Received Power for Matched Load
PR = I 2 Rr 2 =
2
2 2Rr 2
2
Path Gain
= -I 1
= I1
Z12
2Rr 2
2
Z12
8Rr 2
PR
I 1 Z12 8Rr 2
Z 12
PG
=
=
2
PT
4Rr1Rr 2
I 1 Rr1 2
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
22
EffectiveAreaofReceivingAntenna
PR =P ar Ae =PT
EffectiveArea=Ae
Ae1
PT
Z*11
PG =
Z*22
PT
PR g2Ae1
=
2
PT 4r
Ae2
and by reciprocityPG =
Thereforeg2Ae1 =g1Ae2 or
PolytechnicU
g(,)
2 Ae
4 r
PR g1Ae2
=
2
PT
4r
Ae1 Ae2
=
= same for all antennas
g1
g2
2002byH.L.Bert
23
EffectiveAreaforaHertzianDipole
z
I
I(z)
L<<
ejkr
E =a ZI
f ()
r
g() =(3 2)(sin)
2 L
Rr =
3
VOC = LE sin
Formatchedtermination
+
Voc
Z11
Z11*
PolytechnicU
or
Voc
RR
RR Voc/2
PR =
V
1 Voc 2
= oc
2 RR
8RR
2002byH.L.Bert
24
EffectiveAreaforaHertzianDipolecont.
For matched termination
:
VOC 2
E 3 2 2
2
PR =
=
=
sin
=(P ar )g()
2
8RR
2 L 2 2
4
4
8
3
In terms of the effective Parea
R =P ar Ae.
LE sin
2
Comparing expressions,
Ae =g()
4
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
25
PathGainandPathLossinFreeSpace
For any antenna
2
2
Ae1 Ae2
A
=
=
=
or Ae = g
g1
g2 g Hertz 4
4
P
gA
gA
PG R = 1 e22 = 2 e21 =g1g2
4r
PT 4r
4r
For isotropic antennas
g1 =g2 =1
2
PG =
4r
P
1 4r 1
Path Loss
T=
=
PR PG g1g2
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
26
PathGainindBforAntennasinFreeSpace
2
PGdB =PLdB =10logg
1g2
4r
For isotropic antennas,
g1 =g2 =1
For frequency in GHz,
=c f =0.3 fGH
PGdB =32.420logfGH 20logr
PGdB
32.4
52.4
72.4
92.4
r=1
PolytechnicU
fGH=1
Slope=20
r=10
r=100
2002byH.L.Bert
r=1000
27
SummaryofAntennasasReceivers
Directivepropertiesofantennasisthesamefor
receptionandtransmission
EffectiveareaforreceptionAe=g2/4
Formatchedterminations,samepowerisreceived
nomatterwhichantennaisthetransmitter
PathgainPG=PR/PT<1
PathlossPL=1/PG>1
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
28
NoiseLimitonReceivedPower
Minimumpowerforreceptionsetbynoiseand
interference
NoisepowersetbytemperatureT,Boltzmans
constantkandbandwidthfofreceiver:N=kTf
Foranalogsystem,receivedpowerPRmustbeat
least10N
Fordigitalsystems,themaximumcapacityC(bits/s)
inpresenceofwhitenoiseisgivenbythelimit
PR
C =f log2 1+
N
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
29
SourcesofThermalNoise
SkyTemp~5o150oK
PhysicalTemp
ofLine=TL
TA
Tempof
ReceiverTR
PhysicalTempof
AntennaTAP
GroundTemp~300oK
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
30
ThermalNoisePowerN
N =kTsf
Boltsmansconstant=k=1.38x1023watts/(HzoK)
Systemtemperature=TSoK
Bandwidth=fHz
ForTS=300oKandf=30x103Hz
N=1.24x1016watts
(N)dB=159.1dBw=129.1dBm
NoisefigureofreceiveramplifierF~5dB
Effectivenoise=N+F
Fortheexample,N+F=124.1dBm
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
31
WalkAboutPhones
Frequencyband
450MHz
Bandwidth
12.5kHz
Thermalnoise4x1018mW/Hz
5x1014mW
=0.667m
133dBm
Receivernoisefigure
5dBtypical
SNRforreception
10dBforFM
Minimumreceivedpower
2x1012mW
118dBm
Transmittedpower
500mW
27dBm
Maximumallowedpathloss
(PTr)dB(PRec)dB
145dB
Minimumpathgain
PRec/PTr=1014.5
3.2x1015
Antennagain/Antennaheight
Assume0dB
1.6m
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
32
MaximumRangeWalkAboutsinFree
Space
PG =G1G2
=
>3.21015 =321016
4R 4R
or
R<
4
1
5
=9.4
10
m = 940 km or 563 miles
8
3210
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
33
SummaryofNoise
Noiseandinterferencesetthelimitonthe
minimumreceivedpowerforsignaldetection
Thermalnoisecanbegeneratedinallpartsofthe
communicationssystem
Miracleofradioisthatsignals~1012mWcanbe
detected
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
34
GroundandBuildingsInfluenceRadio
Propagation
Reflectionandtransmissionatground,walls
Diffractionatbuildingcornersandedges
DiffractionPath
Transmission
Reflection
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
35
TwoRayModelforAntennasOverFlatEarth
(AntennasareAssumedtobeIsotropic)
E1
Antenna
r1
E2
h1
r2
h2
Image
2
1
1
Pr =Pt
expjkr
(
)
+
(
)
expjkr
(
1
2)
4 r1
r2
() =
cos a r sin2
cos +a r sin2
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
36
ReflectionCoefficientsatPlaneEarth
Vertical(TM)andHorizontal(TE)Polarizations
1
0.9
Horiz.Pol. r=15-j0.1
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
Vert.Pol. r=15-j0.1
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
PolytechnicU
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
IncidentAngle , degree
2002byH.L.Bert
80
90
37
PathGainvs.AntennaSeparation
(h1=8.7mandh2=1.8m)
-40
Brewstersangle
PathGain(dB)
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
-100
-110 0
10
Vertical pol.
Horizontal pol
10
f=900MHz
10
10
Distance(m)
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
38
ShermanIsland/Rural
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
39
ShermanIslandMeasurementsvs.Theory
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
40
FlatEarthPathLossDependenceforLargeR
If R >>h1 andh2 then
2
1
2
1
hh
r1,2 = R2 +(h1 mh2) R + (h1 mh2 ) =R+ (h12 +h22 ) m 1 2
2R
2R
R
and () -1
2
Received power
Pr =Pt
1
1
expjkr
(
)
+
(
)
expjkr
(
1
2)
4 r1
r2
2
h1h2
h1h2
is approximately
Pr =Pt
exp jk
exp jk
4R
R
R
2
or
h1h2
h1h2
Pr =Pt
2sink
=Pt
2sin2
4R
R
4R
R
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
41
PathGainofTwoRayModel
2
hh
PG =
2sin2 1 2
4R
R
4h1h2
At the break point,
R=
the path gain has a local maximum
2
PG =4
4R
Past the break point
2
2h1h2
h12h22
PG
2
= 4
4R R
R
Past the break point,
PG is:
Independent of frequency
Varies as
1 R4 instead of
1 R2 .
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
42
MaximumRangeforWalkAbouts
onFlatEarth
2
4h1h2 4(1.6)
RB =
=
=15.3 m
0.667
For R >RB
(h1h2 )2
PG = 4 >3.21015
R
Solving the inequalityR for
2
(1.6
1.6)
15
R4 <
=0.8
10
15
3.210
or
R <5.3103 m = 5.3 km or 3.2 miles
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
43
FresnelZoneGivesRegionofPropagation
r1
r2r1=/2
r2
Fresnelzoneisellipsoidaboutrayconnectingsourceandreceiver
andsuchthatr2r1=/2
RayfieldspropagateswithinFresnelzone
ObjectsplacedoutsideFresnelzonegeneratenewrays,but
haveonlysmalleffectondirectrayfields
ObjectsplacedinsideFresnelzonechangefieldofdirectray
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
44
FresnelZoneInterpretationofBreakPoint
r1
Fresnelzone
(r2- r1=
r2
RB
RB
4h1h2
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
45
RegressionFitstothe2RayModelonEither
SideoftheBreakPoint
-50
PathGain(dB)
-60
n1=1.3
-70
-80
-90
-100
-110
-120
n2=3.6
f=1850MHz
h1=8.7
h2=1.6
Model:2ray,
r=15
100
PolytechnicU
101
102
Distance(m) RB
2002byH.L.Bert
103
46
SixRayModeltoAccountforReflections
FromBuildingsAlongtheStreet
R0
zT
Ray lengths
:
As seen from above
Rb
Ra
zR
R0 = x2 +(zT zR)
PolytechnicU
Rb = x2 +(w zT zR )
In 3D
2
2002byH.L.Bert
47
SixRayModeloftheStreetCanyon
Rn
2
PG =
V0 +E ( a )Va + E (b )Vb
4
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
48
SixRayModelforStreetCanyon
f=900MHz,h1=10m,h2=1.8m,w=30m,zT=zR=8m
ReceivedPower(dBW)
-40
-50
-60
6raymodel
-70
-80
-90
-100
-110
2raymodel
-120
-130
-140
101
PolytechnicU
102
Distance(m)
103
2002byH.L.Bert
104
49
ReceivedSignalonLOSRoute
f=1937MHz,hBS=3.2m,hm=1.6m
Telesis Technology Laboratories, Experimental License Progress Report to the FCC, August, 1991.
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
50
SummaryofRayModelsfor
LineofSight(LOS)Conditions
Raymodelsdescribesgroundreflectionfor
antennasabovetheearth
Presenceofearthchangestherangedependence
from1/R2to1/R4
Propagationinastreetcanyoncausesfluctuations
ontopofthetworaymodel
Fresnelzoneidentifiestheregioninspacethrough
whichfieldspropagate
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
51
CylindricalWavesDuetoLineSource
The concept of a cylindrical wave will
be useful for discussing diffraction
Line
Source
of a cylinder
For >> radiated fields are
ejk
E =aE ZI
f ()
1
H = a E
to conserve power.
PolytechnicU
2002byH.L.Bert
52