4.

ELECTROSTATICS
Applied EM by Ulaby, Michielssen and
Ravaioli

Chapter 4: Electrostatics

Maxwells Equations
Charge and Current distributions
Coulombs and Gausss Laws
Electric scalar potential
Conductors, dielectrics, and capacitance
Electric boundary conditions
Potential energy

Chapter 4: Electrostatics

Maxwells Equations
God said:

And there was light!

Charge Distributions
Volume charge density:

Total Charge in a Volume

Surface and Line Charge Densities

Total Charge in a surface an

Q s ds
S

Q l dl
l

Examples
l 2z C/m

1. Given the line charge density:

Cartesian Coordinate System:

dx dy 0

0.1

Q l dl 2 zdz z 2 |0z .10 0.01 C

z 0

2
2
2. Given the surface charge density: s 2 10 r C/m

Cylindrical Coordinate System :

Q s ds
s

11.31 mC

0.03

r 0

dz 0

( 2 102 r ) rdrd

Exercise
A square plate residing in the x-y plane is situated in the space defined by 0 x 3m and
0 y 3m. Find the total charge on the plate if the surface charge density is:

s 4 y 2x
Cartesian Coordinate System:

dz 0

3
3
x

Exercise
Find the total charge contained in a volume shown the figure below. The volume charge
density is:

v 4rz

z
10

Cylindrical Coordinate System : dr = 0

3
3
x

Current Density

For a surface with any orientation:

J is called the current density

Convection vs. Conduction

Coulombs Law
Electric field at point P due to single charge

Electric force on a test charge placed at P

Coulombs Law

Eair Ematerial

r 1

Electric flux density: D

Electric flux density D
(C/m2 )

DR

q
4R 2

Note: The density of the field

lines is the same regardless of
the material that you are in.
Dair Dmaterial

Use Coulombs Law to find E field

Assume that we try to find the E field at point P.
Define an origin ( coordinate system).
Write vector Rs from origin to Charge point
Write vector Rp from origin to Field Point
Find vector from Charge point to Field Point Rsp
Apply Coulombs Law to find Field due to the Charge point
Sum or Integrate to find total E at the point P

R1
Rs1

Rp

P
R2

Rs2
x

qi
E P1
R1
3
4 | R1 |

q1

q2

qi
EP
R
3 i
i 1 4 | R i |

Electric Field Due to 2

Charges

Example 4-3: Electric Field due to two point charge

Electric Field Due to Charge

Distributions
Field due to:

E field due to straight line charges

Let us assume

l 6 y C/m

y
5
E(4,3) = ?

E field due to Surface Charges

Let us assume

s 6xy C/m2

y
E(5,4) = ?
4

1
0

E field due to Volume Charges

Let us assume v 8xyz C/m

1
x

E(2,3,0) = ?

Cylindrical System: Surface Charges

Let us assume

Using Table 3-2 convert Cylindrical to

Rectangular, and then back to
Cylindrical

s 8z C/m 2

z
E(rp,p,zp) = ?
4
1

Cont.

Cont.

Example 4-5 cont.

Example
An infinite sheet with uniform surface charge density is located at z=0 (x-y
plane), and another infinite sheet with density is located at z = 2m, both in free
space. Determine E everywhere.

Gausss Law
Gausss law
The total outward electric flux through any closed surface is
equal to the total charge enclosed by the surface.
Gausss Law is written in equation form as:

D ds Q
S

enclosed

where ds a n ds and a n is the outward pointing unit

normal to the closed surface S.

Example: Gausss law and point charge at origin

Given a point charge at the origin, show that Gausss law is valid on a
spherical surface of radius R.
Solution:
From Gausss law :
We know:

DR

D ds Q
S

enclosed

q
D
R
R
2
4R

and ds R 2 sin dd R
q
q
D

d
s

sin

S
S 4
4

sin dd q

0 0

Note:
interior positive charges outward electric flux

interior negative charges inward electric flux

Gausss Law to find E field

Gausss law is only for the case which the charge distribution has
symmetry properties while Coulombs Law is for general case.
Use Gausss Law to find D first , and then find E by D=E.
Major Points:
(1) Point (differential) form of Gausss Law: D v
(2) Integrate over a Volume:

D dv dv Q

(3) Use Divergence theory:

D dv D dS

(4) Integrate form of Gausss Law

D dS Q
S

Applying Gausss Law

Assume that we try to find the E field at point P.
Be sure that the charge is symmetric (D must be equal in magnitude
everywhere on the Gaussian Surface. If not, use Coulombs Law)
Choose a Gaussian surface that has the field point P. The volume
containing charges is inside the surface.
Do the integral on the left side (This is always the same)
Do the integral on the right side to find Q
Solve for D, and then find E.

Example: Using Gausss law to determine E

Example: Using Gausss law to determine E (conts)

Solution:
(1) Determine E field inside the charged sphere.
Applying Gausss law, we have
Since

, so

By symmetry, on S- and (S+), DR is uniform and has only an

component.

Example: Using Gausss law to determine E (conts)

Therefore:

(2) Determine E field inside the charged sphere

Example 4-6

Construct an imaginary Gaussian

cylinder of radius r and height h:

4.5 Electric Scalar Potential

Potential difference or Voltage V between two points in a circuit (electric field)
is defined as the amount of work required to move a unit positive charge from
one to the other.

V W /Q

Minimum force needed to move

charge against E field:

Electric Scalar Potential

Example: potential difference in E field of a point charge

Solution:
We choose an inward radial path from point A to point B

The absolute potential at point B is found by taking the limit as R A goes to infinity.

Electric Potential Due to

Charges
For a point charge, V at range R is:

For continuous charge distributions

In electric circuits, we usually select
a convenient node that we call
ground and assign it zero reference
voltage. In free space and material
media, we choose infinity as
reference with V = 0. Hence, at a
point P
Note: R is the distance between the
integration point and observation point.

Relating E to V

Cont.

(cont.)

Poissons & Laplaces

Equations

In the absence of charges:

E fields in Material Space

When an electric field is applied to a gas, solid, or liquid material, the
charge associated with the material atoms will be affected.
Charge that is not free to move under the influence of the field will be
displaced (polarized) bound charge
Charge not bound by other forces will be set in motion (electric current)
free charge

Conductors

Conduction current density:

Note how wide the range is, over

24 orders of magnitude

Conductivity
ve = volume charge
density of
electrons
he = volume charge
density of
holes
e = electron mobility
h = hole mobility
Ne = number of electrons
per unit
volume
Nh = number of holes per
unit
volume

The drift velocity of the

electron in a conductor is the
product of the E field and the
conductor mobility:

u e e E

J
ve

Resistance
Longitudinal Resistor

For any conductor:

The conductance is G

1
R

Joules Law
The power dissipated in a
volume containing
electric field E and
current density J is:

For a resistor, Joules law reduces to:

For a coaxial cable:

Tech Brief 7: Resistive

Sensors
An electrical
sensor is a
device capable of responding
to an applied stimulus by
generating an electrical
signal whose voltage, current,
or some other attribute is
related to the intensity of the
stimulus.
Typical stimuli :
temperature, pressure,
position, distance, motion,
velocity, acceleration,
concentration (of a gas or
liquid), blood flow, etc.
Sensing process relies on
measuring resistance,
capacitance, inductance,
induced electromotive force

Wheatstone Bridge

Wheatstone bridge is a
high sensitivity circuit
for measuring small
changes in resistance

Dielectric Materials
Nonconducting materials are commonly designated as insulators or dielectrics.
When an electric field is applied to a dielectric atom, an effect known as
polarization results.
A polarized dielectric atom may be modeled as equivalent electric dipole.

Dielectric Materials
Each small equivalent electric dipole
sets up a small electric field, pointing
from + to -, which is opposite in
direction to E.
This induced electric field called a
polarization field.
The total (net) electric field in the
dielectric material is smaller than E.
This is only for nonpolar molecules.

Polarization Field
When a dielectric material is polarized, the field flux is
P is called the electric polarization field.

P = electric flux density induced by E:

r : relative permittivity

Electric Breakdown

Electric Breakdown

4.8 Boundary Conditions

Normal component

Tangential component

Consider a closed rectangular loop abcda in Figure 4-18.

Apply the conservative property of E field:
Letting h 0

Boundary Conditions: normal components

Normal component

Tangential component

Consider a closed small cylinder in Figure 4-18.

Apply Gausss law
Letting h 0

Note: The normal component of D changes abruptly at a charged boundary,

Summary of Boundary
Conditions

Remember E = 0 in a good cond

Dielectric-Conductor boundary
dielectric

Consider a boundary: medium 1 is dielectric and

medium 2 is a perfect conductor.

E1 ?

E2 ?

D1 ?
D2 ?

perfect conductor

Net electric field inside a conductor is zero

Field Lines at Conductor

Boundary

At conductor boundary, E field direction is always

perpendicular to conductor surface

Perfect conductor under static conditions

Example
Determine E and D everywhere for the charge-free boundary shown
below given E1 2x 4 y (V/m)
Solution:
1. Using boundary condition
to determine E2t and E2n
2. Then E2 = E2t+E2n
3. Then D2 = 2E2

4.9 Capacitance

A capacitor is an energy storage device that stores energy in an electric field.

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by an insulating medium.
Application of a voltage between two conductors causes a charge separation.
This charge separation produces an E field within insulating medium such that
energy is stored in the capacitor

The capacitance depends only on the

geometry of the conductors and permittivity
of insulating material.

Capacitance
For any two-conductor configuration:

For any resistor:

1. Obtain an expression for the capacitance C of a parallel-plate capacitor

composed of two parallel plates each of surface area A and separated by a
distance d. The permittivity of the insolating material is .
2. Determine the breakdown voltage if d = 1cm and the dielectric material is
quartz

Solution: C Q
V

Applying a voltage V to two

conductors, charges will
accumulate on the top and
bottom plates.

Charges will induce a E filed

between two conductors

s Q / A
E s / Q / A

Application of Gausss law gives:

Q is total charge on inside of outer

cylinder, and Q is on outside
surface of inner cylinder

Electrostatic Potential
Energy

The energy stored in dielectric medium in the form of electrostatic p

The total stored energy is related to Q, C, and V
Electrostatic potential energy density (Joules/volume)

Total electrostatic energy stored in a volume

Energy stored in a capacitor

Methods to find E
So far, we have learned three ways to find E field
1.

Coulombs Law: need to know the charge distribution

2.

Gausss Law: need to choose a proper Gauss surface

3.

Poissons or Laplaces Law: math skills

How to find E, V for the following case?

Image Method

Image method simplifies calculation for E

and V due to charges near conducting
planes.
1.For each charge Q, add an image
charge Q
2.Remove conducting plane
3.Calculate field due to all charges

Example 4-13

Question:
how to find the surface charge
density of the surface of the
conducting plane?