R ES EA R C H

M ETH O D O LO G Y

M EAN IN G ,PU RPO SE of

Research
Usually regarded as a serious

academic activity
A systematic activity with a set of
objectives to find a solution to a
problem(s)
Sometimes referred to as
manipulation of things, concepts, or
symbols for the purpose of
generalising to extend verify or
correct knowledge to either add to

Purpose .
Understand a particular phenomena
To reveal characteristics of an

individual/ group/situation
To test a hypothesis about the casual
relationship between two variables

Theory and Research

Theory refers to isolated facts

whereas research refers to logical

interlinking of these facts to arrive at
a conclusion or a solution
Research should ideally aid in
understanding the problem and
offering solution
Social research deals with problems
of groups of human beings
A general pattern is found which

Approaches to research
Historical

approach- past data is

collected and analyzed to yield
results.
Descriptive approach- suitable for
empirical problems
Case study approach- A particular
unit of study is chosen for an in
depth analysis
Experimental approach- a scientific
approach using factors affecting a

Techniques in defi
ning the
research problem
Statement of problem in a broad

manner
Understand origin and nature of the
problem
Survey of available literature
Developing the ideas through
discussion
Rephrasing the research problem

Research design-to consider

the follow ing:
Means of obtaining information
Availability of skilled researchers
Objectives /problem- Nature
Availability of time and money

Concepts relevant to Research design

Dependent and independent variable
Extraneous variable
Control
Confounded relationship
Research hypothesis
Experimental and non experimental

hypothesis testing research

Experimental and control groups
Treatments

D eveloping a research plan

After identifying and defining

the problem, the researcher

should arrange his ideas in order
and write them in the form of an
experimental plan.
This is to organise ideas to spot
any flaws
It provides an inventory of
materials to be collected
Can be vetted by experts for

Research plan to contain:

Clear objectives in a line or two
Problems to be explicitly stated
Concepts to be defined in operational context
Overall approach and assumptions if any
Details of techniques of data collection/

instruments to be used etc.

Clearly mention population and sampling plan
Methods for processing of data to be used too
Results of pilot studies to be documented
Time and cost budget to be laid down

Sam pling design

Universe or Population
Census and Sample survey
How a sample is chosen from a

polpulation is called sampling technique.

The sampling technique is decided upon
after due deliberation.
Sample size and technique make up
sampling design- it should be appropriate
and reliable to the proposed study

Steps in sam pling design

Type of universe. Based on

objectives
Sampling unit
Sampling frame/source list
Size of sample- very crucial decision
Parameters of interest
Budgetary constraints
Sampling procedure

Characteristics ofa good

sam ple design
Should yield a truly representative
Should result in a relatively small

sampling error
Viable in the context of funds
available
Systematic bias can be controlled
Results of study should be applicable
to the universe

D iff
erent types ofsam ple
designs
Probability sampling- simple random

sampling and Complex random sampling

such as cluster, area, multi
stage,systematic, stratified etc.
How are strata formed? How should items
be selected from each stratum and how
many?
Non probability sampling such as haphazard
or convenience sampling
& purposive sampling such as quota or
judgment sampling

M EASU REM EN T AN D SCALIN G

TECH N IQ U ES
MEASUREMENT IN RESEARCH- what

it means
What yardsticks are used??
Weight, age, income,marks, etc. are
quantifiable
What about liking, motivation, stress,
success of a policy change
Abstract aspects are not easily
measurable.

M easurem ent scales

Nominal scale
Ordinal scale
Interval scale
Ratio scale

Technique of developing measurement tools

Concept development
Specification of concept development
Selection of indicators
Formation of index

Sources oferror in
m easurem ent
Respondent
Situation
Measurer
Instrument

To test positive for Validity, Reliability

and Practicality

TESTS O F SO U N D
M EASU REM EN T
Test of validity: content, criterion

related and construct validity

Reliability: stability and equivalence
Practicality : economy,
interpretability and convenience

Scaling

Scaling describes the

procedures of assigning
numbers to various degrees
of opinion, attitude and
other concepts

Scale classifi
cation bases
Subject orientation
Response form
Degree of subjectivity
Scale properties
Number of dimensions
Scale construction techniques

arbitrary approach, consensus

approach, cumulative scales, factor
scales

Im portant scaling techniques

Rating scales:
like, dislike, above average, below average etc.
graphic rating scale: a continuum with a five

point scale; like very much, like, neutral, dislike,

dislike v much etc.
itemized rating scale: a numerical scale where a
set of probable answers are arranged and
respondent asked to select one and points are
allotted
Ranking scales relative judgments against
similar objects.

TYPES O F SCALES
Arbitrary scales: designed on subjective

selection of items by researcher; totally

dependent on researchers competence
Differential scales (Thurston type):
selection of items made by a panel of
judges- here large number of statements
to express points of view towards
particular idea- each judge arranges it in
order-median scale value is assigned for
each item-then an order is created as final
scale

Summated scales (Likert type

scales)
Summated scales consist of a series

of statements which express a

favourable or unfavourable attitude /
agreement or disagreement.
Each response is given a score.
Scores are totaled to measure the
attitude/ success/ agreement/
performance or any such non
measurable concept

Cumulative scales
This method consists of a series of

statements
The statements are all related to one
another and measures an
individuals attitude by different
statements by allotting scores
A favorable response to one usually
indicates so for the rest too.
A scalogram is then constructed to
determine a pattern

Factor scales
This scale is developed on basis of

inter correaltions of items which

indicate common factors for
relationships
This is very useful in uncovering
latent attitude dimensions
This method is multi dimensional in
approach
It could use a semantic differential
scale or Multidimensional scaling
technique

Steps in S D scale
All concepts to be studied are

developed
Select scales bearing the criterion in
mind. Bipolar rating is used; for eg:
like-dislike, strict-lenient,activepassive,sociable-unsociable.
A panel of judges are used to rate
various stimuli on selected scales
and responses of all judges are
combines to get a composite scaling

SOURCES OF Data collection

Primary and secondary data
Primary data are those collected for first

time and are original/raw in nature

Secondary data refers to data collected
and processed by another researcher/
writer/study groups etc.
Methods of data collection differ as first
involves collection from
source/respondents whereas the second
on is better known as compilation

Collection of primary data

Mainly used in experiments and

surveys
Can use observation or direct
communication
Observation method is mostly
used for study of behavioural
sciences- its to be systematically
planned and checked for reliability
and validity- can be structured or
unstructured may be participant or
non participant observer/disguised

Interview method :
Interview method of collecting by creating

oral/ verbal stimuli and responses

Categories Personal interviews- direct /indirect may
be structured or unstructured- maybe
focused/clinical or non directive interviews
Interview method is most preferred form
of primary data collection especially in
exploratory studies, but its chief demerit
is that its expensive.

Basic tenets of interviewing

Its an art governed by scientific

principles
Interviewers must be carefully
selected, trained and briefed
They must be persons of integrity
and impartial and possess technical
competence
A provision be created in case
respondents refuse to cooperate or
are unavailable
An interviewer should be non

Telephonic interviews
Means of collecting information

through telephone
Very useful for industrial surveys in
developed regions
Flexible and faster than mailed
interviewsnot suitable for intensive
surveys
Geographical limits can be overcome
by this method

COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH

QUESTIONNAIRES

List of questions printed in order and

sent/given to respondent
The respondent has to interpret and
understand and answer in space
provided or tick relevant box
Especially suitable where universe is
large and spread wide geographically
Educated respondents are required
Cooperation of respondent is
essential for success of questionnaire
method

Key issues in questionnaire

building
General form: structured or

unstructured
Open ended or close ended
Pilot study/survey- unstructured
questionnaire may be used in pilot
studies and responses used to form a
structured one
Question sequence-to be clear,
smooth moving and meaningful; first
few questions are most significant.

Essentials of a good
Should be relatively simple and short
questionnaire

Should proceed in a logical sequence

Personal and intimate questions should

be to the end
Technical terms to be minimum
Adequate space for answers
Tips to help respondents
Catch phrases with personal
connotations to be avoided
Should facilitate compilation and analysis

Collection of data through

Similar to questionnaire method but
schedules
answers are filled by enumerator
The surveyor/ enumerator explains
the objective of the research and
elicits answers/ responses which he
himself records in respective space.
The enumerators have to be properly
trained/ and should know the subject
of research well, should be honest
and have perseverance

Other methods of data

collection
Warranty cards
Distribution/stores audit
Pantry audits
Customer panels
Use of mechanical devices
Projective techniques -word association

tests,sentence completion tests, pictorial

tecniques, play techniques,quizzes,
Depth interviews
Content analysis

Collection of secondary data

Information available in various published records
such as:
Central /state/ local government records

publications and journals, newsletters

Books/magazines/newspapers
Association of trade, commerce etc.- Reports
/surveys/reports
Business houses and stock exchanges
Unpublished data may be referred too like diaries,

autobiographies, letters, notes taken etc.

However Reliability, suitability and adequacy must
be considered before choosing a secondary source

Experimental research
Experimental research is a systematic and

logical method to find the outcome and

measure the change when a set of
variables are controlled/manipulated.
These are mostly laboratory research and
relate to physical /natural sciences. A
problem is defined and hypothesis framed.
Then testing of hypothesis is done to
confirm or reject
The research design must be such that it
reduces bias and permit inferences about
casuality

Case study method

This is a method by which an individual

factor whether it be an institution or just

an episode in the life of an individual or
group is analyzed in its relationship to any
other in the group.
Also referred to as the social microscope
A single unit is chosen and an in-depth
study is done. The study extends over a
long period of time to draw inferences.
It is a widely used method of field
research in sociology studies.

Processing of information
Data after collection has to be processed and

analysed in accordance to the research

design/plan
Processing implies editing, coding,
classification and tabulation of collected data
Analysis is possible when tabulated data can
be tested for relationships
Hypotheses can be tested for significance
based on above
There are few researchers who do not
differentiate between processing and
analysis

Editing
Editing of data is a process of

examining collected raw data to

detect errors of omission and
commission and to correct them if
possible.
Field editing consists of review of
investigating officers reports
Central editing consists of a thorough
editing by a centralized editing team.
Editors should be well trained and
familiar with the instructions

Coding
Coding refers to the process of

assigning numerals or other symbols

to answers/ responses
They must be exhaustive; ie no
class/category must be left uncoded
Coding is very necessary to give
clarity to a mass of data
Coding helps to transcribe data from
questionnaire

Classification of Data and

Tabulation
Large volumes of data reduced to
homogenous groups to get meaningful
relationships
classification may be done according to
attributes or by creating class intervals
A logical order of arranging information in
tables is referred to as tabulation
Accepted principles of tabulation state that
tables should have titles, number/codes,
adequate captions, footnotes, references,
and not too many columns/rows

Testing of Hypothesis
It is a principal instrument in

research
Many experiments are carried out
specifically to test out hypotheses
In social sciences where
awareness of parameters of a
population is not common, a
sample drawn and tested for
hypotheses helps to make
generalisations

What is a hypothesis; its

A research hypothesis is a predictive
characteristics

statement capable of being tested for

validity
For eg: students who receive coaching
write better
For eg: Factory A is performing as well as
Factory B
CHARACTERISTICS: clear and precise;
capable of being tested, should be
relational, consistent with a known body of
facts, one should be able to deduce the
problem from the empirical references

Basic concepts ofhypotheses

Null and alternative hypotheses
Level of significance
Decision rule or tests of hypothesis
Type I and Type II errors
Two tailed and one tailed tests

Report W riting
Writing a research report
A research report can be based on

practical work, research by reading

or a study of an organisation or
industrial/workplace situation.

1.Preparing
Identify the purpose/the aims of the

research/research question.
Identify the audience.
lecturer/supervisor/company/organiz
ation management/staff. The amount
of background included will vary
depending on the knowledge of the
audience.

O rganising
Collecting and organising information
There are two main sources of

information depending on the

research task:
1. Reading theory and other
research
2. Research experiments, data
collectionquestionnaires, surveys,
observation, interviews

O rganise and plan

Organize and collate the information

in a logical order. Make sure you

record the bibliographic information
of your reading as you go along.
(See Quick Tips on mind mapping
techniques)
3. Planning
Before writing the report, prepare a
detailed plan in outline form.

Logicalorganisation
Information in a report must be organized

logically. Communicate the main ideas

followed by supporting details and
examples. Start with the more important or
significant information and move on to the
least important information.
Headings
Use headings and suitable sub headings to
clearly show the different sections. In longer
reports the sections should be numbered.

4.W riting the Report

1. Draft the report from your detailed plan.
2. Do not worry too much about the final form

and language, but rather on presenting the

ideas coherently and logically.
3. Redraft and edit. Check that sections
contain the required information and use
suitable headings, check ideas flow in a
logical order and remove any unnecessary
information.
4. Write in an academic style and tone.

Academ ic reporting style

Use a formal objective style.
Generally avoid personal pronouns;

however, some reports based on

your own field experience or work
placement can be reflective the first
person can be used.
For example, I observed... If in
doubt about this, check with the
faculty guide

W riting a research report

Section- Purpose
Title page- Title of report ;Student

name/student number ;Course/subject ;Date

due
Table of contents - Shows the sections of the
report
Executive summary -Gives a summary of the
whole report; outlines -purpose, research
method, findings, the main conclusions and
recommendations; written mainly in past tense;
written last sections of a research report

Introduction /m ethodology
Outlines context, background and

purpose
Defines terms and sets limits of the
research
The reader/audience can easily
identify what, how, why
(Mainly uses past tense and can be
written later although presented
first)
Methodology- Explains how research

Results/Findings
The above may be combined
Presents findings of the research
Facts only - no interpretation
Uses graphic form (eg. tables &

graphs)

D iscussion .
Discussion Presents an

interpretation and evaluation of the

results.
Analyses results - draws together
different aspects of the findings,
findings
of other studies and refers to
literature

Conclusion &
recom m endations
Conclusion and

recommendations/suggestions may
be combined
Brief statement of what was found
Recommendations - Suggest
suitable changes/solutions based on
your findings of study

Appendix
Appendix- Attachments of additional

information (eg. surveys,

questionnaires, glossary etc)
References - All references used in
report
NB: Further headings and sub

headings are content based and are

particular to the individual report.

H ow to W rite a Research Report and

G ive a Presentation

Things to Remember When Starting

A Presentation
Start with something to get your
audiences attention.
Tell your audience what your
argument will be.
Tell your audience how you are
going to develop that argument.

Presentation O utline:W riting a Research

Report
Getting started and planning
Sections of a typical report
Presentation of text, maps, and

illustrations
Referencing
Presenting Your Research
Strategies for presentation
Designing visuals for your
presentation

Presenting Your Research :G eneralTips

Speak slowly and clearly

Dont fidget
Dont stand still like a statue
Use a podium to hold your notes
Set a stop watch to gauge time

D esigning Presentation G raphics

Graphics should be visible from far away
Serif fonts are easier to read than Sans-Serif

Fonts
Make sure your text contrasts with your
background
Make sure your maps and illustrations are of
professional quality
Do not expect people to read stuff off the
screen--read it for them
Do not show large tables of data. Provide a hand
out or create a summary table with relevant
results highlighted.

Contd .
Do not use too many slides
Keep information on slides to a

minimum
If you want your audience to listen to
you insert a blank slide
Use large print
More than four lines of text are hard
to read on a screen.

H ow to end a presentation
Have ready a list of FAQ s
Save some time for questions
Be ready to go to research

objectives/ research design / findings

as and when required
Be gracious in accepting
shortcomings of your research