BRM Complete Syllabus

Business Research
Methods
BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I
What is Research?
Research is an art of scientific investigation.
It is regarded as a systematic efforts to gain
new knowledge.
The dictionary meaning of research is a
careful investigation or enquiry especially
through search for new facts in any branch
of knowledge.
Definition of Research
Research comprises defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or
suggested solutions; collecting, organizing
and evaluating data; making deductions
and reaching conclusions; and at last
carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulating
hypothesis.
-Clifford Woody
Nature of Research
It strives to be objective and logical.
It is based on observable experience or
empirical evidence.
It is characterized by patient and unhurried
activity.
It demands accurate observations,
reservations and descriptions.
Contd
It is directed towards the solution of the
problem.
It is carefully recorded and reported.
It requires expertise.
It involves gathering new data from primary or
first hand sources or using existing data for
new purpose.
Objectives of Research
To investigate a subject.
To collect data regarding the problem.
To conduct logical and objective study.
To conduct a systematic enquiry of the
subject.
For carefully recording, reporting and
presenting the facts.
Descriptive
Research
Fundamental
Research
Empirical
Research
Analytical
Research
Historical
Research
Applied
Research
Types of
Research
Quantitative
Research
Conceptual
Research
Qualitative
Research
Descriptive Research
Descriptive research does not fit neatly into
the definition of either quantitative or

qualitative research methodologies, but
instead it can utilize elements of both, often
within the same study.
The term descriptive research refers to the
type of research question, design, and data
analysis that will be applied to a given
topic.
Descriptive statistics tell what is, while
inferential statistics try to determine cause
and effect.
Historical Research
The purpose of a historical research design is
to collect, verify, and synthesize evidence

from the past to establish facts that defend
or refute your hypothesis.
It uses secondary sources and a variety of
primary documentary evidence, such as,
logs, diaries, official records, reports,
archives, and non-textual information [maps,
pictures, audio and visual recordings].
The limitation is that the sources must be
both authentic and valid.
Applied Research
Applied research is designed to solve practical problem of the
modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledges

sake. The goal of applied research is to improve the human
condition.
It focus on analysis and solving social and real life problems.
This research is generally conducted on large scale basis, it is
expensive.
As such, it often conducted with the support of some financing
agency like government , public corporation , world bank, UNICEF,
UGC,Etc,.
According to hunt, applied research is an investigation for ways of
using scientific knowledge to solve practical problems for example:improve agriculture crop production, treat or cure a specific disease,
improve the energy efficiency homes, offices, how can
communication among workers in large companies be improved?
Applied Research
Applied research can be further classified as problem
oriented and problem solving research.

Problem oriented research:- research is done by industry
apex body for sorting out problems faced by all the
companies. Eg:- WTO does problem oriented research for
developing countries, in india agriculture and processed food
export development authority (APEDA) conduct regular
research for the benefit of agri-industry.
Problem solving:-this type of research is done by an
individual company for the problem faced by it. Marketing
research and market research are the applied research. For
eg:- videocon international conducts research to study
customer satisfaction level, it will be problem solving
research. In short, the main aim of applied research is to
discover some solution for some pressing practical problem.
Conceptual Research
Conceptual research is that related to
some abstract idea(s) or theory.

It is generally used by philosophers and
thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones.
Quantitative Research
Quantitative research aim to measure the quantity or amount and
compares it with past records and tries to project for future

period.
In social sciences, quantitative research refers to the systematic
empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena
and their relationships.
The objective of qualitative research is to develop and employ
mathematical models, theories or hypothesis pertaining to
phenomena.
The process of measurement is central to quantitative research
because it provides fundamental connection between empirical
observation and mathematical expression of quantitative
relationships.
Statistics is the most widely used branch of mathematics in
quantitative research.
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is collecting, analyzing and
interpreting data by observing what people do

and say.
Qualitative research refers to the meanings,
definitions, characteristics, symbols, metaphors,
and description of things.
Qualitative research is much more subjective and
uses very different methods of collecting
information, mainly individual, in-depth
interviews and focus groups.
The nature of this type of research is exploratory
and open ended.
Qualitative research can be further classified in the
following type.
I. Phenomenology:-a form of research in which the
researcher attempts to understand how one or more
individuals experience a phenomenon.
E.g.:-we might interview 20 victims of Bhopal tragedy.
II. Ethnography:- this type of research focuses on
describing the culture of a group of people.
E.g.:-the researcher might decide to go and live with the
tribal in Andaman island and study the culture and the
educational practices.
III. Case study:-is a form of qualitative research that is
focused on providing a detailed account of one or more
cases
Analytical Research
In analytical research, the researcher has to
use facts or information already available,

and analyze these to make a critical
evaluation of the material.
Empirical Research
Empirical researchis a way of
gainingknowledgeby means of direct and

indirectobservationor experience.
Empirical evidence (the record of one's
direct observations or experiences) can be
analyzed quantitatively or qualitatively.
Through quantifying the evidence or making
sense of it in qualitative form, a researcher
can answer empirical questions, which should
be clearly defined and answerable with the
evidence collected (usually called data).
Fundamental Research
The research which is done for knowledge
enhancement, the research which does not have

immediate commercial potential.
The research which is done for human welfare,
animal welfare and plant kingdom welfare. It is
called basic, pure, fundamental research.
The main motivation is to expand man's
knowledge, not to create or invent something.
There is no obvious commercial value to the
discoveries that result from basic research.
Basic research lay down the foundation for the
applied research.
Significance of Research
It provides the basis for nearly all
government policies in our economic

system.
It helps in solving various operational and
planning problems of business and
industry.
It is an aid to decision making.
It establishes the relation between
variables.
Contd
It is equally important for social scientists
in studying social relationships and in

seeking answers to various social problems.
It provides a basis for innovation.
It facilitates the process of thinking,
analysis, evaluation and interpretation of
various situation.
Limitations of Research
It is based on sample & sampling research
lacks the complete accuracy.

Long time is required in the research
procedures.
Difficult to evaluate the economic benefits
derived from the research.
Trained personnel and a lot of time are
required for research.
Lack of adequate knowledge of research.
Approaches of Research
Methods
There are two types of approaches
Scientific method
Non Scientific Method
Scientific Method: Definition

Scientific research refers to a body of
techniques for investigating

phenomena, acquiring new knowledge
or correcting and integrating previous
knowledge consist of collection of data
through observation and
experimentation and formulation and
testing of hypothesis.
Non Scientific Method:

Definition
Non scientific research is investigating
about human society and of individual

relationships in and to society. It consist of
data through observation and presume
relations among natural phenomena.
Non Scientific Method

Freud used many non scientific methods in his research;
this includes his theory of consciousness and his dream

theory.
Freud thought that dreams were representative of
unconscious desires, thoughts and motivations.
We dont consciously express these thoughts but Freud
suggested that they find their way into our awareness via
dreams.
The problem with this theory is that dreams can not be
scientifically measured and some people would argue that
this makes the method less valid.
The non scientific method does not works on empirical
evidences which means it relies on argument or beliefs.
Difference
Scientific research is a systematic way of
analyzing and interpreting new or existing

material through experimentation and
observation.
Non scientific research is based upon
investigation of natural phenomenon
without systematic means of investigation.
Scientific Method:
Other way of explanation
Why Scientific Method is

required
This can be understood by the errors
committed by the experts in drawing the

results.
Errors of experts who did not

follow the Scientific Method
"Computers in the future may weigh no more
than 1.5 tons."
Popular Mechanics, forecasting the relentless march of
science, 1949
"I think there is a world market for may be five
computers." Thomas Watson, chairman of IBM, 1943

"Airplanes are interesting toys but of no
military value. Marechal Ferdinand Foch, Professor of Strategy,
Ecole Superieure de Guerre.
"Louis Pasteur's theory of germs is
ridiculous fiction".
Pierre Pachet, Professor of Physiology at
Toulouse, 1872
"Heavier-than-air flying machines are
impossible.
Lord Kelvin, president, Royal Society, 1895.
Steps of Scientific Research

Formulate Research question / Problem
Background / Observation
Formulate Hypothesis
Design Experiment
Test Hypothesis/ Collect Data
Interpret/Analyse Results
Publish Findings
Formulate Research question /

Problem
The most important step in research
Often comes from the thought:
The research question defines the area of
interest but it is not a declarative statement

like a hypothesis.
Research question must be capable of being
confirmed or disprove.
The study must be feasible.
Background / Observation
How has the work been done previously?
What similar work has been leading up to this
point?
Study state of the art (literature review, projects,
informal discussions, etc).

Optional realization of preliminary experiments.
What distinguishes previous work from what you
want to do?
Who / What will be impacted by this research?
Formulate hypothesis
A scientific hypothesis states the predicted
(educated guess) relationship amongst variables.

Serve to bring clarity, specificity and focus to a
research problem
... But are not essential
... You can conduct valid research without constructing
a hypothesis
... On the other hand you can construct as many
hypothesis as appropriate
Stated in declarative form. Brief and up to the point.
A possible format (formalized):
If ...... then .... (because ....)
Characteristic of a
Hypothesis
Should be simple, specific and conceptually
clear.
... ambiguity would make verification almost
impossible.
Should be capable of verification.
... i.e. There are methods and techniques for data
collection and analysis.
Should be related to the existing body of
knowledge.
... i.e. Able to add to the existing knowledge.
Should be operationalisable
... i.e. Expressed in terms that can be measured.
Hypothesis Independent and

Dependent Variable
The hypothesis shall contain two types of variables:
Independent Variable(s) and Dependent Variable(s)
Independent Variable - the one the researcher controls.

It is what you, the researcher, change to cause a certain
effect.
Dependent Variable - the one you measure or observe.

Its the effect of the researchers change.
If skin cancer is related to ultraviolet light, then people
with a high exposure to UV light will have a higher

frequency of skin cancer.
Skin cancer is dependent and UV Light is independent
If temperature affects leaf color change, then exposing
the plant to low temperatures will result in changes in

leaf color.
Temperature is Independent and Leaf color change is
dependent
Design Experiment
Includes planning in detail all the steps of
the experimental phase.

Identify the variables that will be
manipulated and measured the research
outcomes must be measurable.
Hypothesis Test and Data

Collect
Collection of the data on the basis of
formulation of a questionnaire
Questionnaire formulation is done on
objectives consdered and hypothesis
formulation
Collection of Data on the basis of sampling
unit, sample size and sample design.
Test the formulated hypothesis through
different statistical techniques
Interpret / Analyze results

What did your experiment show?
Qualitative data analysis.
Quantitative data analysis.
Descriptive and inferential statistics, clustering, ...
What might weaken your confidence in the
results (critical spirit)?

Discussion regarding
Literature
Research objectives
Research questions.
Consider next steps

Recommendations for further research.
Publish findings
A research result is not a contribution to
the field if no one knows about it or can use

it !
Write scientific papers, make presentations
Intermediate results
Conferences
Collect feedback
Consolidated results
Journals
Be careful in selecting where you publish !

Flow Chart of Research

Process
Interpret
&
Report
Define Research
Problem
Analyze the
Data
Review of the
Literature
Formulate
Hypothesis
Design Research
Collection of
Data
Ethics in Business Research

There are several reasons why it is important to adhere
to ethical norms in research.

First, normspromote the aims of research, such as
knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error.
Second, since research often involves a great deal of
cooperation and coordination among many different
people in different disciplines and institutions, ethical
standards promote thevalues that are essential to
collaborative work, such as trust, accountability,
mutual respect, and fairness.
Third, many of the ethical norms help to ensure that
researchers can be held accountable to the public.
The following is a rough and general summary of

some ethical principals that various codes address
Honesty
Objectivity
Integrity
Carefulness
Openness
Respect for
Intellectual Property
Confidentiality
Responsible
Publication
Responsible
Monitoring
Respect for Colleague
Social Responsibility
Non Discrimination
Competence
Animal Care
Legality
Human Subject
protection
Unit II (The Research Problem and

Design)
Formulation and Definition of Business Research
Problem;
Formulation of Research Hypotheses,
Business Research Design Meaning and
Formulation;
Research Design Classification
Exploratory Research Design (Secondary Data &
Qualitative Research),
Descriptive Research Design (Survey &
Observation)
Causal Research Design (Experimentation);
Potential Sources of Errors in Research
Definition of Business
Research Problem
Defining your destination before beginning
a journey.
It determines,
what you will do,
will it withstand scientific scrutiny,
how you will do it, and
what you may achieve!
It is a broad statement of the general
problem and identification of the specific

components of the research problem.
Importance of Research
Problem
Defined research problem can help in
making research design.

The real part of the problem can be
addressed
It helps in using the time, effort and money
in the right direction
Undefined problem is the reason for failure
of results
It enhances the usefulness of the research
The process of defining the

problem
Discussion with Decision

Makers
Problem Audit is required before discussion with
decision makers.
It is a comprehensive examination of a research
problem to understand its origin and nature.
It will help out the decision maker before
expressing their view point.
Researcher while expressing problem audit
should tell causes not the symptoms.
Discussion requires 7 c approach:
Communication, cooperation, confidence, candor
(openness), closeness, continuity, creativity.
Interview with experts

Experts are found inside and out side of the
organisation.
Unstructured way of interviewing should be
followed.
but mere list of topics for interview should be
prepared.
A researcher may face two type of difficulties.
1.An expert who says knowledgeable may not posses
knowledge.
2.It may be difficult to get the knowledge from out
side expert.
3.The expert may not provide the right information.
Secondary Data Analysis

From books, journals, news papers, studies
conducted earlier,
The secondary data is an essential process
in informing the socio economic
background.
Environmental Context of the

Problem
Management Decision
Problems and Marketing
Research Problems
The Management
decision problems
asks what the DM
needs to do
The marketing
research problem
asks what
information is
needed and how it
can best be obtained.
Distinction between management

decision problems and marketing research
problems
Components of the Approach

Objectives: Unbiased evidence that is supported by
empirical findings
Theory: A conceptual scheme based on foundation
statements or saying that are assumed to be true.
Analytical model: An explicit specification of a set of
variables and their interrelationships designed to
represent some real system or process in whole or in part.
1. Verbal models: analytical models that provide the written
statement of the relationship between the variables.
2. Graphical models: analytical model that provide the
graphical representation between the variables.
3. Mathematical Models: Analytical model that describes the
relationship between the variables mathematically.
Formulation of Hypothesis
Hypotheses are single tentative guesses, good
hunches assumed for use in devising theory or

planning experiments intended to be given a direct
experimental test when possible. (Eric Rogers,
1966)
A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the
relation between two or more variables. (Kerlinger,
1956)
Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the
expected relationship between an independent and
dependent variables.
A research question is essentially a hypothesis asked
in the form of a question.
It is a tentative prediction about the nature
of the relationship between two or more

variables.
It is a tentative explanation of the research
problem, a possible outcome of the

research or an educated guess about the
research outcome.
Nature of Hypothesis
It is a clear statement of what is intended to be
investigated.
It should be specified before the conduct of the
research.
Should be able to address the objectives
Should be able to address the key abstract
concepts involved in the research
It should be able to address the key problem and
the literature review
A problem cannot be scientifically solved unless it
is reduced to hypothesis
It can be tested (verified and falsify)
They are not the moral and ethical
questions
It is neither too specific nor to general
It is the prediction of consequences
It is considered valuable even after proving
it false.
Types of Hypothesis
Example
Facts of Hypothesis
Generation of Research
Hypothesis
Consider the example of a simple

association between two variables, Y and
X.
1. Y and X are associated (or, there is an
association between Y and X).

The hypothesis provides a simple
statement of association between Y and X.

Nothing is indicated about the association
that would allow the researcher to
determine which variable, Y or X, would
tend to cause the other variable to change
in value.
2. Y is related to X (or, Y is dependent on
X).
The second hypothesis is also a simple
statement of association between Y and X,

but this time it may be inferred that values
of Y are in some way contingent upon the
condition of the X variable.
3. As X increases, Y decreases (or,
increases in values of X appear to effect

reduction in values of Y).
The third hypothesis is the most specific of
the three. Not only does it say that Y and X

are related and that Y is dependent on X
for its value, but it also reveals something
more about the nature of the association
between the two variables.
An Unstructured exploratory research
methodology based on small samples

intended to provide insights and
understanding of the problem setting.
Pilot survey may also be helpful.
How is a research problem

selected?
Researchers interest in a topic
National or agency priorities
Urgency of an issue
Availability of research funds
Availability of supervision
Problem Tree Keep asking

Why?
Unskilled Labor
Inefficient Irrigation
Unsuitable Climate
Inefficient Water
harvesting
Water Scarcity
Lack of crop varieties

adapted to climate
Unsuitable Crops
Farming Patterns do not

Return nutrients
Low Labor
Productivity
Food Insecurity
Low Land
Productivity
Poor
BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS
- I Soil
Farmers cant afford fertilizers
Farmers unaware of
75
best practices
Business Research Design

Meaning and Formulation:
Aresearch designis a systematic plan to
study a scientific problem.

Decision regarding what, where, when, how
much, by what means concerning and

enquiry or a research study constitute a
research design.
A research design is the arrangement of
conditions for collection and analysis of data in

a manner that aims to combine relevance to
the research purpose with economy in
procedure.
A research design have following parts
Sampling design
Observational Design
Statistical Design
Operational Design
Features of a research Design

The mean of obtaining information
The availability and skills of the researcher
and his staff, if any

The objective of the problem to be studies
The nature of the problem to be studied
The availability of time and money for the
research work.
Classification of research
Design
The names of three types of research design
describe their purpose very well.

The goal of exploratory research is to discover
ideas and insights.
Descriptive research is usually concerned with
describing a population with respect to important
variables.
Causal research design is used to establish
cause and effect relationships between
variables. Experiments are used in causal
research design because they are best suited to
determine cause and effect.
Exploratory Research
Its objective is explore or search through problem
or situation to provide insights and understanding.

Research could be used for any of the following
purposes
Formulate or define a problem more precisely
Identify alternative courses of action
Develop hypothesis
Isolate key variables and relationships for further
examination
Gain insights for developing an approach to the
problem
Establish priorities for further research
Exploratory research is meaningful in any situation
where the researcher does not have enough

understanding to proceed with the research project.
It is characterized by flexibility and verstality with
respect to the methods because formal research
protocols and procedures are not employed.
It rarely involves the structured questionnaires, large
samples and probability sampling plans.
Researcher have to be alert to new ideas and insights
as they proceed.
Once the new idea is pursued until its possibilities are
exhausted or another direction is found.
Most popular methods of

exploratory research
Literature Search
Literature Review: A search of popular press
(newspapers, magazines, etc) trade literature academic

literature or published statistics from research firms or
governmental agencies for data or insights into the
problem at hand.
Depth Interview: Interview with people knowledgeable
about the general subject being investigated.
Focus Group: An interview conducted among a small
number of individuals simultaneously, the interview
relies more on group discussion than on directed
questions to generate data.
Case Analysis: Intensively study of selected examples
of the phenomenon of interest.
Descriptive Research Design

It is a type of conclusive research that has as its
major objective the description of something

usually market, characteristics, or functions.
Descriptive research is conducted for the
following reasons:
To describe the characteristics of relevant groups,
such as consumers, sales people, organizations or

market areas.
For ex- we could develop a profile of the heavy users
(frequent shoppers) of the prestigious stores like Wal-Mart

and Bigbazar
To estimate the percentage of units in a specified
populations exhibiting a certain behaviour

Forex- we might be interested in estimating the
percentage of heavy users of prestigious department

stores like Wal-Mart and Big-bazar.
To determine the perceptions of product
characterstics.
For-ex: how do house-holds perceive the various
department stores in terms of salient factors of the

choice criteria.
To make specific predictions.

For-ex: what will be retail sales of Neiman Marcus
(specific store) for fashion clothing (specific product
category) in the Dallas area (specific region)
Features of Descriptive
research design
A descriptive research is characterized by
prior formulations of specific hypothesis.

Thus the information needed is clearly defined
Descriptive research is preplanned and
structured
It is based on large representative samples
A formal research design specifies the
methods for selecting the source of
information and for collection of the who,
what, when, where, why and way of the
research.
Descriptive research in contrast to exploratory
research is marked by a clear statement of the

problem, specific hypothesis and detailed
information needs.
Other examples are:
Market studies
Market share studies
Sales analysis studies
Image studies
Product usage studies
Distribution studies
Pricing studies
Advertising studies
Descriptive studies involves following
methods
Data analysis
Surveys
Panels
Observation and other data
Descriptive research design can be further
classified into crss sectional and

longitudinal designs.
Causal Research
Causal research is used to obtain evidence of
cause and effect relationships.

These assumptions may not be justified and
the validity of the causal relationships should

be examined via formal research.
For example the common assumptions that a
decrease in price will lead to increased sales

and market share does not hold in certain
competitive environments.
Causal research is
appropriate for the following
To understand which variable are the cause
purposes.
(independent variables) and which variables
are the effect (dependent variable) of a
phenomenon.
To determine the nature of the relationship
between the causal variables and the effect

to be predicted.
Like descriptive research, causal research
requires a planned and structural design.

Descriptive research can determine the degree of
association between variables, it is not appropriate

for examining causal relationship.
Examining causal relationship requires causal design
A relatively controlled environment is one in which
the other variables that may affect the dependent

variable are controlled or checked as much as
possible.
The main method of causal research is causal
experimentation
For Ex: In the context of the department store patronage
project, a researcher wishes to determine whether the

presence and helpfulness of sales people (causal variable)
will influence the sales of house wares (effect variable).
A causal design could be formulated in which two groups
of otherwise comparable housewares departments of a

particular chain are selected.
For four weeks, trained sales people are stationed in the
one group of housewares departments but not in the

other
Sales are monitored for both groups, while
controlling for other variables.

A comparison of sales for the two groups will
reveal the effect of sales people on

housewares sales in department stores.
Alternatively, instead of selecting two groups
of stores, the researcher could select only one

set of department stores and carry out this
manipulation for two comparable time periods.
Sales people are present in one time period
and absent in the other.
Microsoft Experimenting with

usability
Relationships among
Exploratory, Descriptive and
A given marketing research project may
Causal
Research
involve more than one type of research
design and thus serve several purposes.
Combination of a research design depends
on the nature of the problem.

There are following guideline to select the
research design.
When little is known about the problem
situation, it is desirable to begin with

exploratory research.
It is appropriate when the problem needs
to be defined more precisely, alternative

course of action identified, research
questions or hypotheses developed and key
variables isolated and classified as
dependent or independent.
Exploratory research is the initial step in the overall
research design framework.

It should be followed by descriptive or causal
research.
Hypothesis developed via exploratory research
should be statistically tested using descriptive or
causal research.
It is not necessarily to begin every research design
with exploratory research.
It depends upon the precision with which the problem
has been defined and the researchers degree of
certainty about the approach to the problem.
A descriptive design could well begin with
descriptive or causal research.

Exploratory research is generally the initial
step, it need not to follow descriptive or
causal research.
difference between
Descriptive and
Descriptive research, being quantitative in nature, is
Exploratory
Research
restrictive in terms of open
ended questions, which
can be better answered using exploratory research.
Flexibility of design is offered by exploratory
research more than by descriptive research.

Descriptive research is used more to arrive at
statistical tools such as mean, average, median and

frequency. On the other hand, exploratory research
allows the researcher to develop designs that are
more qualitative in nature.
The amount of information known to the researcher
at the start of the research plays an important role

in deciding upon the type of research. With only
vague ideas in the minds of the researcher, it is
better to go for exploratory design. On the other
hand, more information such as quantitative data
allows a researcher to go for descriptive research
that leads to unearthing causal relationships.
Exploratory research needs to be conducted first
to have a platform that allows for collation of data

required in descriptive research.
How Exploratory and

Descriptive Research
Exploratory research must happen first for
Work
Together
descriptive research to be effective. The
latter organizes the data and hypotheses
found during the exploratory process.
Researchers must spend the necessary
time in exploratory research before moving
on to the descriptive phase.
Potential Source of Error

A good Research Design control the various sources of
error.
The total error is the variation between the true mean
value in the population of the variable of interest and
the observed mean value obtained in the marketing
research project.
Random Sampling Error:
It occurs because the particular sample selected is an
imperfect representation of the population of interest.
It is the variation between the true mean value for the
population and the true mean value for the original
sample.
Non Sampling Errors:

It can be attributed to sources other than sampling
and they may be random and nonrandom.

This type of error occurs due to many reasons.
Errors in problem definition, approach, scales,
questionnaire design, interviewing methods and
data preparation and analysis.
For ex: designing a poor questionnaire, which
contains many questions, that leads the
respondents to give biased answers.
Non sampling errors consists of non response
srrors and response errors.
Non Response Error: arises when some
of the respondents included in the sample

do not respond.
The primary causes of nonresponse are
refusals and not at homes.
It is defined as variation between the true
mean value of the variable in the original
sample and the true mean value in the net
sample.
Response Error: arises when respondets
give inaccurate answers or their answers

are misrecorded or misanalyzed.
It is defined as the variation between the
true mean value of the variable in the net

sample and the observed mean value
obtained in the marketing research project.
Errors made by the

researcher includes:
Surrogate information error: is defined as the variation
between the information needed for the marketing

research problem and the information sought by the
researcher.
Measurement Error: is defined as the variation between
the information sought and the information generated by

the measurement process employed by the researcher.
Population Definition error: is defined as the variation
between the actual population relevant to the problem at

hand and the population as defined by the researcher.
Sampling frame error: is the variation between
the population defined and the population implied

by the sampling frame.
Data Analysis Error: It occurs when the raw data
from the questionnaires are transformed into
research findings.
Respondent Selection Error: It occurs when
interviewers select respondents other than those
specified by the sampling design or in a manner
inconsistent with the sampling design.
Recording Error: It arises due to hearing,
interpretation and recording the answers given by
the respondents.
Cheating Error: it occurs when the
interviewer fabricates answers to a part or

all the interview.
Inability Errors: it occurs from the
respondents inability to provide accurate
answers.
Unwillingness Error: arises from the
respondents unwillingness to provide
accurate information.
Sampling Design and

Measurement Techniques
The Sampling Design Process;
Types of Sample Design Probability and
Non-probability Sampling Designs;

Size of Sample;
Sampling Errors;
Concept of Measurement and Scaling;
Important Scaling Techniques
Comparative and Non-comparative;
Reliability and Validity of Measurement.
Sampling Overview
It is one of the component of research
design.
Sampling design involves several basic
questions:
Should a sample be taken?
If so what process should be followed?
What kind of sample should be taken?
How large should it be?
What can be done to control and adjust for
non response errors?

Example of Sampling Design

process
Should one take sample or

census
The objective of research is to obtain information about
the characteristics or parameters of a population.

A population is the aggregate of all the elements that
share some common set of characteristics and that

comprise the universe for the purposes of the
marketing research problem.
Information of the population parameter may be
obtained by taking a census.

A census involves a complete enumeration of the
elements of a population. A population parameter can
be calculated directly in a straightforward way after the
census is enumerated.
A sample is a sub group of the population
selected for participation in the study.
The Sampling Design Process
Target Population is the collection of elements or
objects that possess the information sought by the

researcher and about which inferences are to be
made.
The target population should be defined in terms of
elements, sampling units, extent and time.

An element is the object about which or from the
information is desired.
A sampling unit is an element or a unit containing
the element that is available for selection at some
stage of the sampling process.
Determining the Sampling

Frame
A sampling frame is a representation of the
elements of the target population. It consists of a list

or set of direction for identifying the target
population.
Example: Telephone Book, An Association directory,
listing the firms, in an industry, a mailing list, a city
directory or a map.
If list is not completed than some directions for
identifying the target population should be specified.
The list may omit some elements of the population or
include other elements that do not belong. Therefore
the use of the list will lead to sampling frame
error.
Some cases the sampling frame error can be ignored
but in most cases it should be considered.

This can be done through three ways.
1. Redefine the population in terms of the sampling
frame.
If the telephone book is used as a sampling frame, the
population of households could be redefined as those

with a correct listing in the telephone book in a given
area.
2. considering sampling frame error by screening the
respondents in the data collection phase.

3. adjust the data collected by a weighing schemes
to counter balance the sampling frame error.
Select a Sampling Techniques
The researcher has to decide whether to use a Bayesian
or traditional sampling approach, to sample with or

without replacement, and to use non-probability
sampling.
In Bayesian Approach, the elements are selected
sequentially.
After each element is added to the sample, the data are
collected, sample statistics computed and sampling
costs determined.
This approach incorporates prior information about
population parameters as well as the costs and
probabilities associated with making wrong decisions.
This approach is theoretically appealing, but is not used
much in marketing due to unavailable information on
cost and probabilities.
In traditional Sampling approach, the entire
sample is selected before data collection begins.

Sampling with replacement, an element is
selected from the sampling frame and
appropriate data are obtained. Then the element
is placed back in the sampling frame. Hence it is
possible for an element to be included in the
sample more than once.
Sampling without replacement, once an
element is selected for inclusion in the sample, it
is removed from the sampling frame and
therefore cannot be selected again.
Sample Size Calculation

ss=Z2* (p) * (1-p)/c2
Or
n=Z
c.l.
pq/ E2
where:
n:
Sample Size
Z 2c.l.:
Square of the confidence level in standard error
units
p:
estimated proportion of success
q=(1-p) , or estimated proportion of failures
E2: Square of the maximum allowance for
error between
the true proportion and
the sample proportion
For 95% confidence level and 5% confidence interval and estimated
proportion of success as 0.5, n=385
Mu ()=0 (Population Mean)

Sigma=1 (Population Standard Deviation)
This situation is only for standardized normal
Distribution Curve
Any Normaly Distributed curve can be
converted into standardized normal distributed
curve by using the formula
Z=x- /Sigma
X= is the value one wants to convert
is population mean
Sigma Standard Deviation
With the help of z value we can find out
how far the value x is from mean

If z is negative the x is below the mean
If z is positive the x is above the mean
Z value can also tell us what is the
probability of obtaining a particular value x.
Z value is .3554
If positive it will lie right side of the mean
and negative it will lie on the left side

.3554*100= 35.54
Probability of any value lying between
mean score of 494 and 600 is 35.54%
n=Z
c.l.
pq/ E2
In this formula Z is pre defined.

For 90% confidence level, Z is = 1.65
For 95%, 1.96
For 99%, 2.58
Higher the confidence level more would be
size of sample
P
&
q
P is probability of success and q is
probability of failure
P+q = 1 (Total Probability of happening
and non happening of an event always
between 0 and 1)
q=1-p
P
q
p*q
Various possible combination of p & q are
.1
.9
0.09
.2
.8
.16
.3
.7
.21
.4
.6
.24
.5
.5
.25 (Maximum
value)
When p and q are known, then the actual values of p & q
are taken.
When p & q are not known, it is safe to take p=.5 and
q=.5 as it will give the largest sample size as the product
is maximum.
E: confidence interval or margin of error is always
expressed as decimal and it is a plus or minus figure.

It is the error between the true proportion and
the
sample proportion.
Decision regarding E is taken by the researcher
himself.
This formula is independent of the population size.
Formula for finite population
Classification of Sampling
Techniques
Non Probability Sampling

Selection of different types of Non-probability
sampling relies on personal judgment.

Non probability samples yield good estimates of the
population characteristics.
In non probability sampling the probability of any
particular member of the population being chosen is
unknown.
The selection of sampling units in non probability
sampling is quite arbitrary, as researcher rely heavily
on personal judgment.
There are no appropriate statistical techniques for
measuring random sampling error from a non
probability sample.
The researcher can arbitrarily or
consciously decide what elements to

include in the sample results.
However they do not allow for objective
evaluation of the precision of sample
results. Convenience, Judgmental Quota
and snowball sampling are the main
sampling techniques.
Probability Sampling
Probability sampling is a sampling procedure that
gives every element in the target population a known

and nonzero probability of being selected.
In probability sampling every element in the
population has a known nonzero probability of
selection.
The simple random sample is the best known
probability sample, in which each member of the
population has an equal probability of being selected.
There are no appropriate statistical techniques for
measuring random sampling error from a nonprobability sample.
Situation of Errors
Total Population
Sampling frame Error
Sampling Frame
Random Sampling Error
Planned Sample
Non response Error
Respondents (actual sample)
Non Probability Sampling

Convenience Sampling: is also called as
haphazard or accidental sampling.

It refers to sampling by obtaining units or
people who are most conveniently available.
For ex: it is convenient and economical to
sample employee in companies in a nearby
area.
Just before elections television channels often
present person on the street interviews that
are presumed to reflect public opinion.
Judgment or purposive sampling: is a non
probability sampling technique in which an

experienced individual selects the sample based
on his or her judgment about some appropriate
characteristic required of the sample members.
The researcher selects a sample to serve a
specific purpose, even if this makes a sample
less than fully representative.
For Ex: A TV researcher wants a quick sample of
opinions about a political announcement. They
stop what seems like a reasonable cross-section
of people in the street to get their views.
Quota Sampling is a non probability sampling procedures
that certain characteristic of a population sample will be

represented to the exact extent that the investigator
desires.
The purpose of the QS is to ensure that the various
subgroups in a population are represented on pertinent
sample characteristics to the exact extent that the
investigators desires.
For Ex:, an interviewer in a particular city may be assigned
100 interviews, 20 of which are with small business owners,
18 with professionals, 10 with managerial employees, 7
with supervisors, and the rest with hourly employees.
Aggregating the various interview quotas yields a sample
representing the desired proportions of the subgroup.
Snowball Sampling refers to a variety of
procedures in which initial respondents are

selected by probability methods and
additional respondents are then obtained
from information provided by initial
respondents.
Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling assures that each
element in the population has an equal chance of

being included in the sample.
Drawing names from a hat and selecting the
wining raffle ticket from a large drum are typical
examples of simple random sampling.
Systematic Sampling is a procedure in which
an initial starting point is selected by a random
process and then every nth number on the list is
selected.
With systematic sampling, every 200 th name from
the list would be drawn.
Stratified Sampling is a probability
sampling procedure in which random

subsamples are drawn from within different
strata that are more or less equal on some
characteristics.
This is not used in quota sampling.
Difference between Quota

and
Stratified
Sampling
Stratified sample = a sample including each sub category of the target
population
So for example, if your target population is Banaras Hindu University
students, each sub category would include each University degree;
English students, Law students, Psychology students, Engineering
students, Mathematics students etc.
Quota sample = a sample including a pre determined % of each sub
category of the target population
So for example, if your target population is Banaras Hindu University
students, each sub category would have an assigned required %; 10% of
English students, 20% of Law students, 5% of Psychology students, 5%
of Engineering students and 60% of Mathematics students.
So a stratified sample is a sample including each sub category of a target
population, whilst a quote sample determines what % of each sub
category of the target population is required.
Cluster Sampling: is an efficient sampling
technique in which the primary sampling unit is

not the individual element in the population but
a large cluster of elements. (e.g. Manufacturing
firms but the large cluster of elements (e.g.
cities)
The area sample is the most popular type of
cluster sample.
A grocery researcher for ex, may randomly
choose several geographic areas as the primary
sampling units and then interview all or a sample
of grocery stores within the geographic clusters.
Multistage Sampling: involves two or more steps that
combine some of the probability techniques already

described.
For Ex: A political researcher investigating an election
in Varanasi might first choose states within the contry to

ensure that the different areas are represented in the
sample. In the second step, grounds within the selected
states may be chosen. As a final step, constituency (or
house hold) within the grounds could be chosen, then all
the blocks (or house hold) within the geographic area
would be interviewed. As many steps as are necessary
are taken to achieve a representative sample.
Concept of Measurement and Scaling: Important

scaling technique
The first determination in any survey design is "What is to
be measured?"
Although our problem statement or research questionwill
inform us as to the concept that is to be investigated, it
often does not say anything about the measurement of
that concept.
Let us assume we are evaluating the sales performance of
group sales representatives.
We could define their success in numerical terms such as
dollar value of sales or unit sales volume or total
passengers.
We could even express it in share of sales or share of
accounts lost. But we could also measure more subjective
factors such as satisfaction or performance influencers.
Traditionally, the level of scale measurement is
seen as important because it determines the

mathematical comparisons that are allowable.
The four levels or types of scale measurement
are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio level

scales.
Each type offers the researcher progressively
more power in analyzing and testing the validity

of a scale.
Primary Scale of
Measurement
Nominal Scale
Nominal scales represent the most elementary
level of measurement.
A nominal scale assigns a value to an object for
identification or classification purposes only.
The nominal scale does not express any values
or relationships between variables.
Labeling men as "1" and women as "2" (which is
one of the most common ways of labeling
gender for data entry purposes) does not mean
women are "twice something or other"
compared to men.
Ordinal Scale
Ordinal scales allow things to be arranged in order
based on how much of some concept they possess.

In other words, an ordinal scale is a ranking scale.
In fact, we often use the term rank order to describe
an ordinal scale.
When class rank for high school students is
determined, we have used an ordinal scale.
We know that the students is determined, we have
used an ordinal scale.
We know that the student ranked seventh finished
ahead of the student ranked eighth, who finished
ahead of ninth ranked student.
Example of Ordinal
1. This brand makes a strong impression on
my visual senses or other senses.
(1- Strongly Agree, 4 Neither agree nor
disagree and 7 Strongly disagree)
Social
Media
Platfor
m
Facebook
Google
Plus
Linkedin
Twitter
Interval Scale
Interval scales have both nominal and
ordinal properties, but they also capture

information about differences in quantities
of a concept.
If a professor assigns grades to term
papers using a numbering system ranging
from 1.020.0, not only does the scale
represent the fact that a student with a
16.0 outperformed a student with 12.0, but
the scale would show by how much (4.0).
The classic example of an interval scale is temperature.
Consider the following weather:

June 6 was 80 F
December 7 was 40 F
The interval Fahrenheit scale lets us know that December 7 was
40 F colder than June 6.
But, we cannot conclude that December 7 was twice as cold as
June 6.
Although the actual numeral 80 is indeed twice as great as 40,
remember that this is a scaling system. (Due to equal interval it
can be said the interval item)
In this case, the scale is not iconic, meaning that it does not
exactly represent some phenomenon.
In other words, there is no naturally occurring zero pointa
temperature of 0 does not mean an absence of heat (or cold for
that matter).
This brand does not appeal to my senses
(strongly agree to Strongly Disagree)

Social
Media
Platform
Facebook
Google
Plus
Linkedin
Twitter
Ratio Scale
Ratio scales represent the highest form of measurement
in that they have all the properties of interval scales with

the additional attribute of representing absolute
quantities.
Interval scales possess only relative meaning, whereas
ratio scales represent absolute meaning. In other words,

ratio scales provide iconic measurement.
Ex. Indicate your age in Years. (Only numbers to be given
e.g. 24)
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
When the age of the respondent is
compared with other respondent than it is

ratio.
Otherwise it is nominal
Ratio can be converted into nominal.
Scaling Techniques
Comparative and NonWithcomparative scaling, the items are
comparative
directly compared with each other
(example: Do you preferPepsiorCoke?).
Innon-comparative scalingeach item is
scaled independently of the others
(example: How do you feel about Coke?).
Paired Comparison
This is an ordinal level technique where a
respondent is presented with two items at a

time and asked to choose one.
This is the most widely used comparison scale
technique. If you take n brands then [n (n-1)/2]
paired comparisons are required.
A classic example of when paired comparison is
used is during taste tests.
For example you could have a taste test in
which you have someone try both Coke and
Pepsi and then ask them which one they prefer.
Paired Comparison scaling
Rank Order Scaling

This gives the respondent a set of items and then
asks the respondent to put those items in some kind

of order.
The order could be something like preference, liking,
importance, effectiveness, etc.
This can be a simple ordinal structure such as A is
higher than B or be done by relative position (give
each letter a numerical value as in A is 10 and B is 7).
You could present five items and ask the respondent

to order each one A-E in order of preference.
In Rank-Order scaling only (n-1) decisions need to be
made.
Constant Sum Scaling

Respondents allocate a constant sum of
units, such as 100 points, to attributes of a

product to reflect their importance.
If an attribute is unimportant, the respondent
assigns it zero points.
If an attribute is twice as important as some
other attribute, it receives twice as many

points.
The sum of all the points is 100. Hence, the
name of the scale.
Likert Scaling
Business researchers adaption of the
summated rating method, developed by Rennis

Likert is extremely popular for measuring
attitudes because the method is simple to
administer.
An extremely popular means for measuring
attitudes. Respondents indicate their own
attitudes by checking how strongly they agree
or disagree with statements.
Response alternatives: strongly agree,
agree, uncertain, disagree, and strongly
disagree.
Likert Scale for Measuring

Attitudes Toward Tennis
It is more fun to play a tough, competitive
tennis match than to play an easy one.
Strongly Agree
Agree
Not Sure
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
There is really no such thing as a tennis

stroke
that cannot be mastered.
Strongly Agree
Agree
Not Sure
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Playing tennis is a great way to exercise.

Strongly Agree
Agree
Not Sure
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Semantic Differential
A series of seven-point bipolar rating
scales. Bipolar adjectives, such as good

and bad, anchor both ends (or poles) of
the scale.
A weight is assigned to each position on
the rating scale. Traditionally, scores are 7,

6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3.
Semantic Differential
Scales for Measuring
Exciting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Calm
Attitudes Toward Tennis
Interesting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Dull

Simple___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Complex
Passive___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Active
Stapel Scales
Modern
versions of the Stapel scale place a

single adjective as a substitute for the semantic
differential when it is difficult to create pairs of
bipolar adjectives.
The advantage and disadvantages of a Stapel
scale, as well as the results, are very similar to
those for a semantic differential.
However, the Stapel scale tends to be easier to
conduct and administer.
This is a unipolar ten-point rating scale. It ranges
from +5 to 5 and has no neutral zero point.
A Stapel Scale for

Measuring a Stores
Department
Image
Store Name
+3
+2
+1
Wide Selection
-1
-2
-3
Three Criteria for Good

Measurement (Reliability,
There are three major criteria for evaluating
Validity)
measurements: reliability, validity and sensitivity.
Reliability: Reliability is an indicator of a
measures internal consistency.

Consistency is the key to understanding
reliability.
A measure is reliable when different attempts at
measuring something converge on the same
result.
Reliability applies to a measure when similar results
are obtained over time and across situations.

Reliability is a degree to which measures are free
from error and therefore yield consistent results.
For example: ordinal measures are reliable if they
consistently rank order items in the same manner,
reliable interval measures consistently rank order
and maintain the same distance between items.
When a respondent misunderstands the question,
are the cause of low reliability
If a respondent understand the question but does not
know the real reason for his behavior, hence he may
not be able to give the response with truthfulness.
Two dimensions underlie the concept of reliability: one is
repeatability and other is internal consistency.

Assessing the repeatability of a measure is the first
aspect of gauging the reliability.
The test-retest method of determining reliability
involves administering the same scale or measure to the
same respondents at two separate times to test for
repeatability.
For Ex. If repeated measurement of that individuals
attitude toward the job are taken with the same attitude
scale, a reliable instrument will produce the same results
each time the attitude is measures.
When the measuring instrument produces unpredictable
results from one testing to the next, the results are said
to be un reliable because of errors in measurement.
There are two problems with measures.

1. pre-measure may sensitize the respondents to their
participation in a research project and subsequently

may influence the result of second measure.
2. the second dimension of reliability concerns the
homogeneity of the measures. An attempt to measure
an attitude may require asking several similar (but not
identical) questions or presenting of a battery scale.
For Ex. Please tell me how true each statement is about your job. Is it very true,
somewhat true, not very true or not at all true?

1. The work is interesting
2. I have an opportunity to develop my own special abilities.
3. I am giving a chance to do the things I do best.
Internal consistency represents a measures
homogeneity. An attempt to measure trustworthiness

may require asking several similar but not identical
questions.
The technique of splitting halves is the most basic
method for checking internal consistency when a
measure contains a large number of items.
In the split-half method the researcher may take the
result obtained from one half of the scale items and
check them against the results from the other half of the
items.
In the equivalent form method two alternative
instrument are designed to be as equivalent as possible.
Each of the two measurement scales is administered to
the same group of subjects.
If there is high correlation between the two forms, the
researcher concludes that the scale is reliable.
Coefficient alpha ( ) is the most commonly applied
estimate of a multiple-item scales reliability.

Coefficient represents internal consistency by computing the
average of all possible split-half reliabilities for a multiple-item
scale.
Coefficient alpha ranges in value from 0, meaning no
consistency, to 1, meaning complete consistency (all items
yield corresponding values).
Generally speaking, scales with a coefficient between 0.80
and 0.95 are considered to have very good reliability.
Scales with a coefficient between 0.70 and 0.80 are
considered to have good reliability, and an value between
0.60 and 0.70 indicates fair reliability.
When the coefficient is below 0.6, the scale has poor
reliability.
Most statistical software packages, such as SPSS, will easily
compute coefficient .
Cronbachs basic equation for alpha
n
Vi
n 1
Vtest
n = number of questions
Vi = variance of scores on each question
Vtest = total variance of overall scores (not
%s) on the entire test
How alpha works

Vtest is the most important part of alpha
n
Vi
n 1
Vtest
If Vtest is large, it can be seen that alpha will
be large also:
Large Vtest Small Ratio Vi/Vtest
this small ratio from 1 high alpha
Subtract
High alpha is good. High alpha is caused by
high variance.
But why is high variance good?
High variance means you have a wide spread
of scores, which means students are easier to

differentiate.
If a test has a low variance, the scores for the
class are close together. Unless the students

truly are close in ability, the test is not useful.
Validity
Validity is the ability of a scale or measuring
instrument to measure what it is intended to measure.

There are three approaches to deal with the evaluation
of validity.
1. Face Validity or Content Validity, refers to the
subjective agreement among professionals that a scale
logically appears to reflect accurately what it claims to
measure.
2. Criterion Validity, is the ability of some measure to
correlate with other measures of the same construct.
It helps in knowing, Does my measure correlate with
other measure of same construct?
3. Construct Validity: is the ability of a
measure to confirm a network of related

hypothesis generated from a theory based
on the concepts.
Unit 3
Data Collection Tools and Data Processing-
Questionnaires and Observation Forms;

Questionnaire Design Process;
Collecting Primary Data through
Observations, Semi-structured Interviews,
In-depth Interviews and Questionnaire;
Processing of Research Data Editing,
Coding, Classification and Tabulation
Questionnaires
A questionnaire is a formalized set of
questions for obtaining information from

respondents.
The overriding objective is to translate the
researchers information needs into a set of

specific questions that respondents are
willing and able to answer.
Why Is a Questionnaire
Important?
A questionnaire enables quantitative data to be
collected in a standardized way so that the data are

internally consistent and coherent for analysis.
Imagine how difficult it would be to analyze the data of
a national survey conducted by 40 different

interviewers if the questions had not been asked in a
standard way, that is, if the interviewers had asked
different questions using different wording and order.
A questionnaire ensures standardization and
comparability of the data across interviewers, increases

speed and accuracy of recording, and facilitates data
processing.
Questionnaire Design Process
Specify the information needed: A
continual review of the earlier stages of the

research project, particularly the specific
components of the problem, the research
questions, and the hypotheses, will help
keep the questionnaire focused.
Questionnaires should also be designed
with the target respondents in mind, taking

into account their educational level and
experience.
Type of Interviewing Method:

Personal Interview
Telephone Interview
Mail Questionnaire
Computer Assisted Interview
Internet Questionnaire
Email questionnaire
Individual Question Content: the decision is to
be taken on number of parameters.

Is the Question Necessary?
Are several Questions needed instead of One?
(Sometimes, several Questions are needed to obtain

the required information in an unambiguous manner)
Do you think Coca-Cola is a tasty and refreshing soft drink?
(Incorrect)
Do you think Coca-Cola is a tasty soft drink? And Do you think
Coca Cola is a refreshing soft drink? (Correct)
Why do you shop at Nike Town? (Incorrect)
What do you like about Nike Town as compared to other
stores? And How did you first happen to shop in Nike Town?
(Correct)
Overcoming Inability to answer

Respondents may not always be able to answer the
questions posed to them.

Researchers can help them overcome this limitation by
keeping in mind the reasons people typically cannot
answer a question: They may not be informed or they
may not remember.
Overcoming Unwillingness to Answer
Even if respondents are able to answer a particular
question, they may be unwilling to do so. Refusal to
answer a question may be due to a variety of
circumstances. The respondent may feel there's simply
too much effort involved, or that the information
requested is too sensitive.
Structure of the Question?

Unstructured Questions
Structured Questions (Structured questions
specify the set of responses as well as their

format. A structured question may offer multiplechoices, or a scale.)
Multiple-Choice Questions
Do you intend to travel overseas within the next six months?
_____ Definitely will not travel
_____ Probably will not travel
_____ Undecided
_____ Probably will travel
_____ Definitely will travel
Scales to be used
How Should the Question Be Worded?

To avoid problems in question wording, there are five
guidelines:
(1) define the issue,
Which brand or brands of bath soap have you personally
used at home during the past month? In case of more

than one brand, please list all the brands that apply
(2) use ordinary words,
Is the distribution of snack foods adequate? (Incorrect)
Are snack foods readily available when you want to buy
them? (Correct)
(3) avoid ambiguous words,

In a typical month, how often do you go to a movie
theater to see a movie?

_____ Never _____ Occasionally _____ Sometimes
_____ Often _____ Regularly (Incorrect)
_____ Less than once _____ 1 or 2 times _____ 3 or 4
times _____ More than 4 times (Correct)
(4) avoid leading questions,
Do you think that India should provide financial aid
to poor foreign countries when it is not our

responsibility to do so?
_____ Yes _____ No _____ Don't know (Incorrect)
Do you think that America should provide
financial aid to poor foreign countries?

_____ Yes _____ No _____ Don't know (Correct)
(5) use positive and negative statements.
Questions of this type should be balanced by
using dual statements, some of which are
positive and some negative.
Two different questionnaires, which reverse
the direction of the questions, could also be
used to control for any bias introduced by the
positive or negative nature of the statements
Proper Order of Questions?

When arranging questions in a proper order, the
researcher should consider the opening questions,

the type of information sought, difficult questions,
and the effect on subsequent questions. Questions
should be arranged in a logical order, organized
around topic areas.
Three types of information are obtained from a
questionnaire: (1) basic information, (2) classification
information, and (3) Identification information.
Should the Questionnaire Be Pretest? Yes
Design of Questionnaires for Experimentation
Collecting Primary Data through

Observations, Semi-structured Interviews,
In-depth Interviews and Questionnaire;
Observations,
Observation involves:
Systematic observation
Recording
Description
Analysis and
Interpretation of peoples behaviour
Types of observation:
Participant observation discovers the
meaning that people attach to their actions

(more qualitative). Has its roots in social
anthropology the individual derives a
sense of identity from interaction and
communication with others (symbolic
interactionism)
Types of observation:
Structured observation more concerned
with the frequency of this action (more

quantitative). It is systematic and has a
high level of predetermined structure. Uses
self-completion diaries
Advantages of structured observation

It can be used by anyone after some training
so it can be delegated
The results are reliable
Not only observes the frequency of events, but
also records the relationship between them
No personal interpretation on events by
observers, everything is recorded the moment
it happens
Structured observation secures information
that otherwise would be ignored as
insignificant
Disadvantages of structured
observation
Observer must be present when
phenomena happen
Research results are limited to overt action
Data is slow and expensive to collect
Semi-structured Interviews, In-depth Interviews
and Questionnaire
Interview:
An interview is a purposeful discussion between two or
more people
Kahn and Cannell (1957)
Structured interviews: use questionnaire based
on a predetermined and standardized or identical

set of questions and we refer to them as
interviewer administered questionnaires.
Semi-structure interviews: the researcher will
have a list of themes and questions to be covered,
although these may vary from interview to
interview. This means that you may omit some
questions in particular interviews, given a specific
organizational context that is encountered in
relation to the research topic. The order of
questions also be varied depending on the flow of
conversation.
Unstructured interviews: are informal. You
would use these to explore in-depth a general

area in which you are interested . We
therefore, refer to these as in-depth
interviews. There is no predetermined list of
questions to work through in this situation,
although you need to have a clear idea about
the aspect or aspects that you want to
explore. The interviewee is given the
opportunity to talk freely about events
behavior and beliefs in relation to topic area.
Uses of different types of interview in

each of the main research categories
Interviewing Competence
There are several areas where you need to
develop and demonstrate competence in

relation to conduct of semi structured and
in-depth research interview . These areas
are:
Opening the interview;
Using appropriate language;
Questioning;
Listening;
Testing and summarizing understanding;
Recording and dealing with difficult participants;
recording data.
Approaches of Questions
Open Questions: The use of open question will
allow participants to define and describe the

situation or event. An open is designed to encourage
the interviewee to provide an extensive and
developmental answer and may be used to reveal
attitudes or obtain facts. It encourage s the
interviewee to reply as they wish. An open question
is likely to start with or include, one of the following
words: what, or how, or why,.
Propping Questions: Can be used to explore
responses that are of significance to the research

topic. They may be worded like open questions
but request a particular focus or direction.
Specific & Closed Questions: These
types of questions are simpler to those

used in structured interviews. They can be
used to obtain specific information or to
confirm a fact or opinion.
Forms of Interview
Types of Questions (Structured
Questionnaire)
Yes/No Questions
Do you have a library membership card?
Yes (
No (
)
Multiple Choice Questions
What purpose do you visit the library? (Multiple choices)
( ) To read news papers

( ) To refer books
( ) To borrow and return books
( ) To brows Internet
Scaled questions:
Examples of types of scales include the Likert scale,
semantic differential scale, and rank-order scale

Ex: To what extent the information obtained from the
web based resources are useful to you? (Likert Scale)
Rankings:
Please rank the following web based resource usefulness in
order of preference (starting from 1 is least preferred and 10
is most preferred).
Unstructured questionnaires (Open-ended)
1. What are the facilities and services do you expect from

your library?
2. What are the benefits for automating a library
housekeeping functions?
Semi-structured questionnaires (Partially
Structured Question)
1. What purpose do you use web based resources?
To write assignments
For Research Work
To improve subject knowledge
For the purpose of seminar presentation
Any other (Please specify):
1.________________
2. ________________
Processing of Research Data

Editing, Coding, Classification and
Tabulation
Editing: is the process of checking and adjusting
responses in the completed questionnaires for
omissions, legibility, and consistency and
readying then for coding and storage.
Purpose of Editing:
For Consistency between and among responses.
For completeness in responses-to reduce effects
of item non response.

To better utilize questions answered out of order.
To facilitate the coding process
Basic Principles of Editing:

Checking the no of schedules/questionnaire
Completeness
Readability
To avoid inconsistencies in answer
To maintain degree of Uniformity
To eliminate Irrelevant Responses
Types of Editing
Field Editing
Office Editing
Coding:
It is the process of identifying and classifying
each answer with a numerical score or other

character symbol.
The numerical score or symbol d a code and serves
as a rule for interpreting classifying and recovering

data
Identifying responses with code is necessary if data
is to be processes by computer.
Example: Which Magazines do you read?
Tabulation: it is a process of summarizing raw data
and displaying the same in compact form (in the form

of statistical analysis) for further analysis. When mass
data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for
the researcher to arrange the same in some kind of
concise logical order, which may be called tabulation.
Advantages:
It simplifies complex data
It facilitates comparison
It facilitates computation
It presents facts in minimum possible space.
It is good for references.
Preparing a table:
Table Number
Title of table
Captions or columns headings
Stubs or row designation
Body of the table
Foot notes
Sources of data
Types of Table:
Simple or one way table
Two way table
Manifold table
Unit 4
Analysis of Data-Exploring, Displaying and
Examining Data;
Basic Data Analysis Descriptive Statistics;
Univariate Statistics Hypotheses Testing;
Bivariate Analysis Test of Differences and
Measures of Association;
Multivariate Analysis.
Analysis of Data-Exploring,
Displaying and Examining
Data
Facts about data

Raw or data that have been summarized in any way are
some times referred to as ungrouped data.

Data that have been organized into a frequency distribution
are called grouped data.
One particularly useful tool for grouping data is the
frequency distribution which is a summary of data presented
in the form of class interval.
The midpoint of each class interval is called the class
midpoint and is sometimes referred as the class mark. It is
the value halfway across the class interval and can be
calculated as the average of two class endpoints.
Relative frequency is the proportion of the total frequency
that is in any given class interval in a frequency distribution
Cumulative Frequency is a running total of frequencies
through the classes of a frequency distribution.
Frequency Table
A frequency table is a simple device for arraying
data.
It arrays category codes from lowest value to highest value,
Columns for count (frequency), percent, valid percent

(percent when missing data is extracted), and cumulative
percent.
Frequency Table
When the variable of interest is measured on an interval-ratio
scale and is one with many potential values, these techniques

are not particularly informative.
The example shows a condensed frequency table of the
average annual purchases of PrimeSells top 50 customers.
Only two values, 59.9 and 66, have a frequency greater
than 1.
Thus, the primary contribution of this table is an ordered
list of values.
If the table were converted to a bar chart, it would have 48
bars of equal length and two bars with two occurrences.
Frequency Table
Qualitative Data Graphs

Qualitative graphs are plotted using non
numerical categories.
Qualitative data graphs are Pie Chart, Bar
Chart and Pareto Chart.
Pie chart
Pie Chart is a circular depiction of data
where the area of the whole pie represents

100% of the data and slices of the pie
represent a percentage breakdown of the
sublevels.
Pie Chart
(This portion of Exhibit illustrates the observations

of ad recall in the form of a pie chart)
Bar Graph
A bar graph or chart contains two or more
categories along one axis or series of bars,

one for each category, along the other axis.
In horizontal bar graphs are referred to as
bar charts and vertical bar graphs are
referred to as column chart.
Bar Chart
(In this slide, the same data are

presented in the form of a bar chart)
Pareto Diagram
The Pareto diagram is a bar chart whose percentages sum to 100
percent.
The data are derived from a multiple-choice single-response scale,
a multiple-choice multiple response scale, or frequency counts of
words (themes) from content analysis.
The respondents answers are ordered from most to least, from
left to right.
Overlaid with a line graph denoting the cumulative percentage at
each variable level

The pictorial array that results reveals the highest concentration
of improvement potential in the fewest number of remedies.
Quantitative Data graphs

Data graphs are classified as quantitative
and qualitative. Quantitative data graphs

are plotted along a numerical scale and
qualitative data graphs are plotted using
non-numerical categories.
Histogram, frequency polygon, Ogive, Dot
plot and screen and leaf plot are the main
type of Quantitative data graphs.
Histogram
The histogram is the conventional solution for the display of intervalratio data.
Histograms are used when it is possible to group the variables values
into intervals.
A histogram is a graphical bar chart that groups continuous data
values into equal intervals, with one bar for each interval.
Data analysts find histograms useful for

1. displaying all intervals in a distribution, even those without
observed values, and
2. examining the shape of the distribution for:
skewness (deviation from symmetry),
kurtosis (peakedness or flatness), and
modal pattern (frequency).
The values for the average annual purchases variable presented in next
slide were measured on a ratio scale and are easily grouped.
Histograms are not useful for nominal variables like ad recall that
has no order to its categories.
Histogram
Frequency Polygon
Very much like histogram, it is a graphical
display of class frequencies. Each class

frequency is plotted as a dot at the class
midpoint and the dots are connected by a
series of line segment.
Stem and Leaf
The stem-and-leaf display is a technique that is closely related to the

histogram.
It shares some of the histograms features but offers several unique

advantages.
In contrast to histograms,
Histograms lose information by grouping data values into intervals,
Stem-and-leaf presents actual data values that can be inspected directly,
Dont need the use of enclosed bar or asterisks as the representation
medium.
Visualization is the second advantage of stem-and-leaf displays.

Range of values is apparent at a glance,
Both shape and spread impressions are immediate.
Patterns in the data are easily observed.
Each line or row in the display is referred to as a stem
Each piece of information on the stem is called a leaf.
In the first stem, there are 12 items (leaves) in the data set
whose first digit is 5.
455666788889 representing
54,55,55,56,56,56,57,58,58,58,58,59
The second stem shows that there are 8 average annual
purchase values whose first digit is 6.
12366799 representing 61,62,63,66,66,67,69,69

Rotate the display 90 degrees and you have the shape of the
histogram
Problem Stem & Leaf Plot
Ogives
Ogive is a cumulative frequency polygon.
Construction begins by labeling the x-axis

with the class endpoints and the y axis with
the frequencies.
It is very useful when the decision makers
wants to see running totals.
Dot plots
A relatively simple statistical chart that is
generally used to display continuous,

quantitative data is the dot plot.
Cross Tabulation
Depending on the management question, we gain valuable insights by

examining data with cross-tabulation
Cross-tabulation is a technique for comparing data from two or
more categorical variables.
It is used with demographic variables and the studys target

variables.
The technique uses tables having rows and columns that
correspond to the levels or code values of each variables

categories.
Exhibit is an example of a computer-generated cross-tabulation.

This table has two rows for gender and two columns for assignment
selection.
The combination produces four cells.
Each cell contain a count of the cases of the joint classification and
also the row, column, and/or the total percentages.
The number of row cells and column cells is often used to designate
the size of the table, as in this 2 x 2 table.
Row and column totals, called marginals, appear at the bottom and
right margins of the table.
Cross-tabulation is a first step for identifying relationships with variables.

When tables are constructed for statistical testing, we call them
contingency tables and the test determines if the classification
variables are independent of each other.
Line Graph
A line graph displays the relationship
between two types of information, such as

number of school personnel trained by
year. They are useful in illustrating trends
over time.
Guidelines for Formatting

Graphs
Keep it simple and avoid flashy special effects. Present only
essential
information.
and
Charts
Avoid using gratuitous options in graphical software programs,
such as three-dimensional bars, that confuse the reader. If the

graph or chart is too complex, it will not clearly communicate the
important points.
Title your graph or chart clearly to convey the purpose. The title
provides the reader with the overall message you are conveying.
Specify the units of measurement on the x- and y-axis. Years,
number of participants trained, and type of school personnel are
examples of labels for units of measurement.
Label each part of the chart or graph. You may need a legend if
there is too much information to label each part of the chart or
graph. (See the line graph). Use different colors or variations in
patterns to help the reader distinguish categories and
understand your graph or chart.
Measurement of Variability:
Ungrouped Data
Range: is the difference between the
largest value of a data set and the smallest

value of set.
Range is Highest Lowest
R = $ 43.25-$36.25
Mean Absolute Deviation: (MAD) is the
average of the absolute values of the
deviations around the mean for a set of
numbers
Mean Absolute Deviation: The mean
absolute deviation (MAD) is average of the

absolute values of the deviations around
the mean for a set of numbers.
Variance: is the average of the squared
deviation about the arithmetic mean for a

set of numbers.
Standard Deviation: is the square root of
the variance
Measure of Shape
Measure of shape are tools that can be
used to describe the shape of a distribution

of data.
Skewness: Skewness is when a
distribution is asymmetrical or lacks
symmetry.
Kurtosis: Kurtosis describes the amount of
peakdness of a distribution.
Univariate Statistics
Hypotheses Testing
Hypothesis:
Unproven proposition
Supposition that tentatively explains certain facts or
phenomena
Assumption about nature of the world
Statement about the status quo
No difference
Alternative Hypothesis:
Statement that indicates the opposite of the null
hypothesis
Significance Level:
Critical probability in choosing between the null
hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis

Significance Level
It is Critical Probability between choosing the
null and the alternative.

Confidence Level
Alpha
The level of significance determines the
Probability Level, which is selected typically .
05 or .01that is to be considered too low to
warrant support for the null hypothesis
An Example of Hypothesis Testing
The null hypothesis that the mean is equal to 3.0:
Ho :
3.0
The alternative hypothesis that the mean does not

equal to 3.0:
H 1 : 3.0
A Sampling Distribution
Darker side is the
region of rejection
UPPER
LIMIT
LOWER
LIMIT
Critical values of
Critical value - upper limit
n = 225, the mean
score of five point scale X bar is 3.78, Stand Deviation = 1.5, set the significance
level at .05, from standardized normal distribution table the Z score of 1.96
represented a probability of .025.
ZS X
or Z
3.0 1.96
1.5
225
S
n
Critical values of
3.0 1.96 0.1

3.0 .196
3.196
Critical values of
Critical value - lower limit
- ZS X or - Z
3.0 - 1.96
1 .5
225
S
n
Critical values of
3.0 1.96 0.1

3.0 .196
2.804
Region of Rejection
LOWER
LIMIT
UPPER
LIMIT
Hypothesis Test
2.804
3.196
3.78
Type 1 and type 2 errors

Hypothesis testing using sample
observation is based on probability theory.

We make an observation of a sample and
use it to infer the probability that some
observations is true within the population
the sample represents.
Because we cannot make any statement
about a sample with complete certainty,
there is always the chance that an error will
be made.
Type 1 Error: Suppose the observed sample mean
described above leads to the conclusion that the mean is

greater than 3.0 when in fact the true population mean is
equal to 3.0. A Type I error has occurred.
A Type I error occurs when a condition that is true in the
population is rejected based on statistical observation.
Type 2 Error: If the alternative condition is in fact true (in
this case the mean is not equal to 3.0) and the null
hypothesis is actually false, but we conclude that we
should not reject the null hypothesis (accept that the
mean is equal to 3.0), we make what is called a Type II
error.
A Type II error is the probability of failing to reject a false
null hypothesis.
This incorrect decision is called beta (Beta ).
Type I and Type II Errors

Accept null
Null is true
Null is false
Correctno error
Type II
error
Reject null
Type I
error
Correctno error
Type I and Type II Errors

in Hypothesis Testing
State of Null Hypothesis
in the Population
Decision
Accept Ho
Reject Ho
Ho is true
Ho is false
Correct--no error
Type II error
Type I error
Correct--no error
Choosing the Appropriate

Statistical Technique
Making the correct Statistical technique is
determined by
1.The type of question to be answered
2.The number of variables involved
3.The level
of scale
measurement
Measures
of Central
Tendency
and Dispersion Permissible
with each type of Measurement Scale
Type of Scale
Measure of Central
Tendency
Measure of
Dispersion
Nominal
Mode
None
Ordinal
Median
Percentile
Interval
Mean
Standard Deviation
The decision is to be made for

parametric and Non parametric
Hypothesis
test statistics and nonparametric
The terms parametric

statistics refer to the two major groupings of statistical
procedures.
The major distinction between them lies in the
underlying assumptions about the data to be analyzed.
Parametric statistics involve numbers with known,
continuous distributions. When the data are interval or
ratio scaled and the sample size is large, parametric
statistical procedures are appropriate.
Non Parametric methods are used when the
researcher does not know how the data are distributed
and when the data is either ordinal and nominal.
univariate statistical method
Bivariate Analysis (Tests of

Difference)
What is appropriate test of difference?
Ex: One of the most frequently tested
hypothesis states that the two groups are

different with respect to certain behavior,
characteristic or attitude.
In statistical terminology the null hypothesis is
that the two groups are the same.
Bivariate statistics is
the test of differences or
measures of association between two variables at
a time.
Common bivariate tests of

differences.
Type of Differences
Measure among two
ment
independent
groups
Differences
Type of
among three or Statistic
more
s
independent
groups
Interval
Independent
One way ANOVA
and Ratio Groups t test or
scale
Z Test
Parametri
c
Ordinal
Mann-Whitney
Kruskal Wallis
U-test Wilcoxon test
test
NonParametri
c
Nominal
Z test (two
Chi-square test
proportion) Chisquare test
NonParametri
c
Bivariate Analysis (Measures

of Association)
Suppose sales volume is the dependent
variable and Marketing mix is dependent

variable.
Hypothesis will be sales volume is
associated with Marketing Mix.
Independent variable is denoted by X and
the Dependent Variable is denoted by Y
It is appropriate to label dependent and
independent variable only when it is
assumed that the independent variable is
caused the dependent variable.
Bivariate Analysis (Common

Procedure for testing
Association)
Multivariate Analysis
Multivariate data analysis is statistical methods
that allow the simultaneous investigation of

more than two variables.
For Ex: The price of domestic crude oil can be
simultaneously influenced by rate of inflation,
political instability and the balance of payments.
Individuals can evaluate various investments on
the basis of many different attributes.
As researchers increasingly become aware of
the multidimensional nature of their problems,
they will increasingly utilize multivariate
analysis to help them solve complex problems.
Classifying Multivariate
techniques
Two basic Multivariate techniques are dependent
methods and interdependent methods.

Analysis of Dependence: it is a multivariate
techniques which attempts to explain and predict
the dependent variables on the basis of two or
more independent variables. For Ex: Is a person
good or a poor credit risk based on age, income
and marital status?
Analysis of Interdependence: The Goal of
interdependence methods is to give meaning to a
set of variables or to seek to group things together.
No one variable or variable subset is to be
predicted from the others or explained by them.
A Classification of Selected
Multivariate Methods
Multivariate Dependence
Technique
Metric: The scales are Ratio or Interval and Nonmetric the scales are Nominal or Ordinal
Multivariate Interdependence
Technique
Metric: The scales are Ratio or Interval and Nonmetric the scales are Nominal or Ordinal
Unit 5
Business Research Report-Importance of
the Report & Presentation;

Business Report Format;
Report Writing;
Oral Presentation; Research Follow-up
Importance of the Report
Business Report Format:

1. Title page (sometimes preceded by a title fly page)
2. Letter of transmittal (Its purpose is to release or deliver
the report to the recipient)
3. Letter of authorization (The letter of authorization is a
letter to the researcher that approves the project,
details who has responsibility for it, and describes the
resources available to support it)
4. Table of contents (and lists of figures and tables)
5. Executive summary
Objectives
2. Results
3. Conclusions
4. Recommendations
1.
6. Body
Introduction
1.
1.
2.
Background
Objectives
Methodology
3. Results
4. Limitations
5. Conclusions and recommendations
2.
7. Appendix
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Data collection forms

Detailed calculations
General tables
Bibliography
Other support material
The Make up of the Report
Adapting Report Format to

Required Formality
Academic Report
Chapter 1
Introduction:
Social Media: An Overview
Chapter 2
Literature Review:
Research Gap
Statement of the Problem:
Objectives:
Hypothesis:
Research Model:
Methodology
Research Design:
Sampling Design:
Population:
Sample Size:
Sampling Unit:
Sampling
Method:
Data Collection
Instruments:
Scope of the Study:
Significance of the
Study:
Chapter 3
Analysis and
Interpretation:
References:
Report Writing
Oral Presentation;
The purpose of an oral presentation is to highlight the
most important findings of a research project and provide

clients or line managers with an opportunity to ask
questions.
Communication specialists often suggest that a person
preparing an oral presentation begin at the end
The researcher should select the three or four most
important findings for emphasis and rely on the written
report for a full summary
The researcher also needs to be ready to defend the
results of the research
The researcher should deal with confidence, competent
manner with the questions that arise.
Presenters should avoid doing from reading
prepared text word for word.

By relying on brief notes, familiarity with the
subject, and as much rehearsal as the occasion
calls for, presenters will foster better
communication.
Presenters should avoid research jargon and use
short, familiar words.
Presenters should maintain eye contact with the
audience and repeat the main points.
Graphic and other visual aids can be as useful in
an oral presentation as in a written one
Slides, overhead-projector acetates, and on-screen
computer-generated graphics are useful for larger

audiences.
Large typeface, multiple colors, bullets that highlight, and
other artistic devices can enhance the readability of
charts.
Using gestures during presentations also can help convey
the message and make presentations more interesting.
Open up your arms to embrace your audience. Keep your
arms between your waist and shoulders.

Drop your arms to your sides when not using them.
Avoid quick and jerky gestures, which make you appear
nervous.
Hold gestures longer than you would in normal conversation.
Vary gestures. Switch from hand to hand and at other times
use both hands or no hands.
Dont overuse gestures.
Research Follow -up

In many cases, the manager who receives the
research report is unable to interpret the

information and draw conclusions relevant to
managerial decisions.
For this reason effective researcher do not treat
the report as the end of the research process.
They conduct a research follow-up, in which they
re-contact decision makers and/or clients after the
latter have had a chance to read over the report.
The purpose is to determine whether the
researchers need to provide additional information
or clarify issues of concern to management.

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Business Research

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

the definition of either quantitative or

to collect, verify, and synthesize evidence

modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledges

oriented and problem solving research.

some abstract idea(s) or theory.

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

compares it with past records and tries to project for future

interpreting data by observing what people do

use facts or information already available,

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

gainingknowledgeby means of direct and

enhancement, the research which does not have

government policies in our economic

in studying social relationships and in

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

lacks the complete accuracy.

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

Scientific Method: Definition

techniques for investigating

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

Non Scientific Method:

Non scientific research is investigating

about human society and of individual

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

Non Scientific Method

this includes his theory of consciousness and his dream

analyzing and interpreting new or existing

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

Other way of explanation

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

Why Scientific Method is

committed by the experts in drawing the

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

Errors of experts who did not

than 1.5 tons."

Popular Mechanics, forecasting the relentless march of

"I think there is a world market for may be five

computers." Thomas Watson, chairman of IBM, 1943

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

"Louis Pasteur's theory of germs is

Pierre Pachet, Professor of Physiology at

"Heavier-than-air flying machines are

Lord Kelvin, president, Royal Society, 1895.

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

Steps of Scientific Research

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

Formulate Research question /

interest but it is not a declarative statement

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

informal discussions, etc).

What distinguishes previous work from what you

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS - I

(educated guess) relationship amongst variables.