Chapter USM

USM is able to efectively machine all hard materials

whether they are electrically conductive or not.

The process and cutting tool

The process is performed by a cutting tool, which oscillates at
high frequency, typically 20-40 kHz, in abrasive slurry.
The shape of the tool corresponds to the shape to be
produced in the workpiece.
The high-speed reciprocations of the tool drive the abrasive
grains across a small gap against the workpiece .
The tool is gradually fed with a uniform force.
The impact of the abrasive is the energy principally
responsible for material removal in the form of small wear
particles that are carried away by the abrasive slurry.
The tool material, being tough and ductile, wears out at a
much slower rate.

Ultrasonic Machining

Elements of ultrasonic machining

The tool is oscillated by a

longitudinal magnetostriction
A magnetic field variation at
ultrasonic frequencies
The length of a ferromagnetic
object changes

Material removal
Occurs when the abrasive particles, suspended in the
slurry between the tool and workpiece, are struck by the
downstroke of the vibration tool.
The impact propels the particles across the cutting gap,
hammering them into the surface of both tool and
workpiece. Collapse of the cavitation bubbles in the
abrasive suspension results in very high local pressures.
Under the action of the associated shock waves on the
abrasive particles, microcracks are generated at the
interface of the workpiece.
The effects of successive shock waves lead to chipping of
particles from the workpiece.

Material removal

The basic components to the cutting

action are believed to be

 Small, tabletop-sized units to large-capacity machine

tools,
Bench units, and as self-contained machine tools.
Power range from about 40 W to 2.5 kW.
The power rating strongly influences the material
removal rate.

Subsystems of USM System

B

A
The power supply is a sine-wave generator
The user can control over both the frequency and power of the
generated signal.
It converts low-frequency (50/60 Hz) power to high-frequency
(10-15 kHz) power
Supply to the transducer for conversion into mechanical
motion.

B
Two types of transducers are used in USM to convert the
supplied energy to mechanical motion.
They are based on two different principles of operation
- Magnetostriction
- Piezoelectricity

Magnetostrictive transducers are usually constructed from a

laminated stack of nickel or nickel alloy sheets.
Magnetostriction is explained in terms of domain theory .

Domains are very small regions, of the order of l0-8 ~ l0-9 cm3,
In which there are forces that cause the magnetic moments of the
atoms to be oriented in a single direction.
In each domain the atomic magnetic moments are oriented in one
of the directions of easy magnetization

In the cubic-lattice crystals of iron and nickel there are

six directions of easy magnetization.
In unmagnetized material all these directions are
present in equal numbers, the magnetic moments of the
orderless, unorientated domains compensate one
another

When the material is placed in a sufficiently strong

magnetic field, the magnetic moments of the domains
rotate into the direction of the applied magnetic field
and become parallel to it.
During this process the material expands or contracts,
until all the domains have become parallel to one
another.

As the temperature is raised, the amount of

magnetostrictive strain diminishes .
Magnetostrictive transducers require cooling by fans or
water.

Such as quartz or lead,zirconate,titanate, generate a small

electric current when compressed.
Conversely, when an electric current is applied, the
material increases minutely in size.
When the current is removed, the material instantly
returns to its original shape.

Piezoelectric materials are composed of small particles bound

together by sintering.
The material undergoes polarization by heating it above the
Curie point.
Such transducers exhibit a high electromechanical conversion
efficiency that eliminates the need for cooling.

The magnitude of the length change is limited by the

strength of the particular transducer material.
The limit is approximately 0.025 mm.

C
Its function is to increase the tool vibration amplitude
and to match the vibrator to the acoustic load.
It must be constructed of a material with good acoustic
properties and be highly resistant to fatigue cracking.

C
Monel and titanium have good acoustic properties and are often
used together with stainless steel, which is cheaper.
However, stainless steel has acoustical and fatigue properties that
are inferior to those of Monel and titanium, limiting it to low
amplitude applications.
Nonamplifying holders are cylindrical and result in the same
stroke amplitude at the output end as at the input end.
Amplifying toolholders have a cross section that diminishes
toward the tool, often following an exponential function.
An amplifying toolholder is also called a concentrator.

Amplifying holders remove material up to 10 times faster

than the nonamplifying type.
The disadvantages of amplifying toolholders include
increased cost to fabricate, a reduction in surface finish
quality, and the requirement of much more frequent running
to maintain resonance.

D
Tools should be constructed from relatively ductile
materials.
The harder the tool material, the faster its wear rate will
be.
It is important to realize that finishing or polishing
operations on the tools are sometimes necessary because
their surface finish will be reproduced in the workpiece.

The geometry of the tool generally corresponds to the

geometry of the cut to be made,
Because of the overcut, tools are slightly smaller than
the desired hole or cavity
Tool and toolholder are often attached by silver brazing.

E
The criteria for selection of an abrasive for a particular
application include hardness, usable life, cost, and particle
size.
Diamond is the fastest abrasive, but is not practical because of
its cost.
Boron carbide is economical and yields good machining rates.
Silicon carbide and aluminum oxide are also widely used.

Coarse grits exhibit the highest removal rates,when the grain

size becomes comparable with the tool amplitude, cut more
slowly.
The larger the grit size, the rougher the machined surface.

With an abrasive concentration of about 50% by weight

in water but thinner mixtures are used to promote
efficient flow when drilling deep holes or when forming
complex cavities.

Example
Find the machining time for a hole 5mm in diameter in a
tungsten carbide plate 1cm thick.
The grains are 0.01mm in diameter, the feed force is 3N, and
the amplitude of oscillation is 20 micro m at a frequency of
25KHz.
The fracture hardness is approximately 6900N/mm2.
The slurry is mixed in equal parts water and abrasive.

Example

The acoustic head is the

most complicated part of
the machine.
It must provide a static
force, as well as the high
frequency vibration

Example
- Basic machine layout

Magnetostrictive materials should have a good coupling of

magnetic and mechanical energy

Example

Basic machine layout

 If a tool is designed to increase flow, better cutting speeds will

occur.
Tools
- hard but ductile metal
- stainless steel and low carbon
- aluminum and brass tools wear near 5 to 10 times faster

Abrasive Slurry
- common types of abrasive
- boron carbide (B4C) good in general, but expensive
- silicon carbide (SiC) glass, germanium, ceramics
- corundum (Al2O3)
- diamond (used for rubies , etc)
- boron silicon-carbide (10% more abrasive than B4C)

liquid
- water most common
- benzene
- glycerol
- oils
high viscosity decreases mrr
typical grit size is 100 to 800

Little production of heat and stress, but may chip at exit

side of hole.
Sometimes glass is used on the back side for brittle
materials.

 Mechanics of material removal - brittle fracture caused by impact of

abrasive grains due to vibrating at high frequency
Medium - slurry
Abrasives: B4C; SiC; Al2O3; diamond; 100-800 grit size
Vibration freq. 15-30 KHz, amplitude 25-100 micro m
Tool material soft steel
Material/tool wear = 1.5 for WC workpiece, 100 for glass
Gap 25-40 micro m
Critical parameters - frequency, amplitude, tool material, grit size,
abrasive material, feed force, slurry concentration, slurry viscosity
Material application - metals and alloys (particularly hard and brittle),
semiconductors, nonmetals, e.g., glass and ceramics
Shape application - round and irregular holes, impressions
Limitations - very low mrr, tool wear, depth of holes, and cavities small.

1. A cylindrical impression with a diameter of 10mm and a depth

of 1mm has to be made on a tungsten carbide surface. The
feed force is constant and equal to 5N. The average diameter
of the grains in the abrasive slurry is 0.01mm. The tool
oscillates with an amplitude of 30 micro m at 20 KHz. The
slurry contains 1 part of abrasive to about 1 part of water. The
fracture hardness of tungsten carbide workpiece may be
taken as 7000 N/mm2. Estimate the machining time.

2. A square through hole of 5mm by 5mm has to be drilled in a

5mm thick tungsten carbide sheet. The slurry is made of 1
part of 10 micro m radius boron carbide grains mixed with 1.5
parts of water. The feed force is 4N. The tool oscillates with an
amplitude of 0.015mm at 25KHz. Assuming that only 20% of
the pulses are effective, calculate the time required to
complete the job.
3. In an ECM operation, a pure copper block is being machined.
If a current of 5000A is used, determine the volume rate of
material removal from the copper block.

4. The composition of a Nimonic alloy turbine blade is 18%

cobalt, 62% Ni, and 20% chromium. It is being machined
electrochemically with a current of 1500A. Find out the volume
removal rate if the density of the alloy is 8.3g/cm3. The
dissolution valency of chromium is 6, whereas that for both
nickel and cobalt is 2.
5. The composition of a monel alloy workpiece undergoing
electrochemical machining is as given here:
63% Ni, 31.7% Cu, 2.5% Fe, 2% Mn, 0.5% Si, 0.3% C
if the machining current is 1000A, estimate the volume
removal rate.

6. The equilibrium gap when machining (electrochemically) iron,

using NaCl solution in water as the electrolyte, is found to be
0.2mm. The current density is 200A/cm2, the operating
voltage being 12V. Iron dissolves at a valency 2, the density of
iron is 7.8 g/cm3, and the specific resistance of the electrolyte
is 2.8 ohm cm. Calculate the metal removal rate/unit work
surface area. The overvoltage may be taken as 1.5V.

7. In an electrochemical trepanning operation on a flat iron

surface, an electrode in the form of a tube (with an outer
diameter of 1cm). A laser beam with a power intensity of
2 * 105 W/mm2 is used to drill a 0.2mm diameter hole in a
tungsten sheet of 0.4mm thickness. If the efficiency of the
operation is only 10%, estimate the time required.
8. TRUE / FALSE - Water is the main cutting tool in Ultra
Sonic machining.
9. Why are the vibrations in USM so small?

10. USM will be used to add the following pattern to an object,

If the tool is Tungsten carbide, and the work is Cu, with an
amplitude of oscillation of 10 m, at 30KHz, how long will the
operation take? (Note: the grain diameter is 20m, and the
head has a static force of 6N)

11. When is the abrasive added into the flow for the various
abrasive jet machining processes?
12. Why is the depth of material removed by abrasive jet
machining so variable?
13. Describe the ability of the abrasive processes to
produce sharp corners.