Radar Principles

and
General
Characteristics

RADAR
An acronym derived from the phrase
Radio Detection and Ranging
Applies to electronic equipment
designed for detecting and tracking
objects (targets) at considerable
distances.

Basic RADAR Principles

Short burst of radio energy (traveling at
the speed of light) are transmitted,
reflected off a target and then returned
as an echo.

Radar History
In the early 1800s an English Physicist, demonstrated
that electric current produces magnetic field.
In 1864 the Scottish physicist, James Maxwell generated
the general equations of the electromagnetic field,
determining that both light and radio waves are actually
electromagnetic waves.
In 1886 the German physicist, Heinrich Hertz validated
Maxwells general equations. He was able to show that
electromagnetic waves traveled in straight lines and that
they can be reflected from a metal object.
In 1904 the German engineer, Christian Hulsmeyer
obtained a patent for a device capable of detecting ships.

Radar
History
Invented in 1900s (patented in 1904) and
reinvented in the 1920s and 1930s
Applied to help defend England at the beginning of
World War II (Battle of Britain)

Provided advance warning of air raids

Allowed fighters to stay on ground until needed

Adapted for airborne use in night fighters

Installed on ships for detecting enemy in bad
weather (Bismarck)

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RADAR Bands and Usage

Radar Propagation
Characteristics

The Radio Wave

Radio frequency travels at the speed of light.
(approx. 162,000 nmi/s)
Radar waves tend to travel in straight lines or
rays and are also subject to refraction or
bending in the atmosphere.

POLARIZATION
- orientation of the Electric Axis in space.
CYCLE
- one complete oscillation or one complete
wave
FREQUENCY
- is the number of cycles completed per
second.

The Radio Wave

WAVELENGTH
- is the distance along the direction of
propagation between successive crests or
troughs.
AMPLITUDE
- is the maximum displacement of the wave
from its mean or zero value.

The Radio Wave

Radar Wave

Frequency and Wavelength

Relationship

c
f

Example:
When the wavelength is 3.2 centimeters (0.000032km),
frequency is equivalent to:
km
c 300000
s
0.00032km
c
f

f 9375MHz

The RADAR equation

Reflected signal can be determined from the power density

at the target multiplied by RCS (Radar Cross Section)
PREF

= PT . GT . RCS
4 r 2

Power density at receiver from the reflected signal

will be
P

REF

= PT . GT . RCS .
4 r

1
4 r

2 is not antenna, so radiation is omni - directional

Note: target

Multiplied by the effective area of the radar

antenna, this becomes

PREF = PT . GT . RCS . Aeff

(4 ) 2 r4
PREF = PT . GT . RCS .

GR 2

(4 ) 2 r4
PREF = PT . GT . RCS . GR . 2
(4 ) 3 r4

RADAR range equation

Sample problem

Solution

Solution

Pulse radar

Pulse radar

Pulse radar

Pulse radar

Pulse radar

Clutter

Typical Radar Geometry

A typical radar system consists of a co-located pulsed

transmitter and a receiver, usually sharing an antenna

A pulse is transmitted and then the receiver listens for the

return, similar to sonar

The strength of the return signal depends upon the

distance to the target and its (electrical) size

The radar determines the distance to the target from the

time delay before receiving the reflected pulse

Basic Radar System

Free Space Propagation

The Radar Beam

Minor Lobes

Major Lobe
Free Space Radiation Pattern

The Radar Beam

The strength of the energy decreases rapidly in

directions away from the beam axis.
The power in watts at points in the beam is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance.
The field intensity in volts at points in the beam is
inversely proportional to the distance.

Beam Width
The angular width of a radar beam between points
within which the field strength or power is greater
than the arbitrarily selected lower limits of field
strength or power.
The angular width between points at which the field
strength is 71 percent of it maximum value.
In terms of power ratio, beam width is the angular
width between half-power points

The Radar Beam

Beam Width

Antenna Parameters

Antenna Parameters

Types of RADAR

Classification by
waveform

Range Ambiguity
As was mentioned earlier, the reply for a given
pulse may arrive after the next pulse has been
transmitted. This gives rise to
RANGE AMBIGUITY since the radar assumes
that each reply results from the preceding
pulse

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Range Ambiguity
Range ambiguity may be resolved by using
more than one prf.
In this case the ambiguous returns show up at
a different range for each prf

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RADAR Functions

Time delay and Ranging

Superposition of waves

Wave polarization

RADAR Display Types

Track vs Search

Antenna Patterns

RADAR systems

RADAR Jamming

Low Observability

RADAR Cross section

RADAR Cross Section

Radar Cross Section

Radar Cross Section (RCS)
To simplify things the radar range equation assumes that a
target with cross sectional area absorbs all of the incident
power and reradiates it uniformly in all directions.
This, of course, is not true
When the radar pulse hits a target the energy is reflected and
refracted in many ways depending on
a. the material it is made of
b. Its shape
c. Its orientation with respect to the radar

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Radar Cross Section

Examples:
Corner reflector

Transparent
Absorber

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Radar Cross Section

Simple Shapes:
The sphere is the simplest shape to analyze:

It is the only shape for which the radar cross section

approximates the physical cross section
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Radar Cross Section

Simple Shapes:
The sphere is the simplest shape to analyze:

But even a sphere gives some surprises!

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Radar Cross Section

Simple Shapes:
The word aspect is used to refer to the angle from which
the object is being viewed.
Obviously the RCS of a sphere is independent of the
aspect angle but that is not true in general
The metallic rod for example:

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Radar Cross Section

Simple Shapes:
Another relatively simple shape is the Cone Sphere

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Radar Cross Section

Real life targets are much more complicated:
a large number of independent objects scattering energy in
all directions
scattered energy may combine in-phase or out of phase
depending on the aspect angle (scintillation)
All techniques for determining RCS have severe limitations;
Calculation:
GTD (geometric theory of diffraction)
Experimental:
Full scale: very expensive
Scale models:
lose detail

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Radar Cross Section

Experimental RCS

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Radar Cross Section

Experimental RCS

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Radar Cross Section

RCS Examples

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Stealth Fighter F117

Radar Cross Section 0.003m2

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RCS Reduction Methods

RADAR Room

Mobile radar

END