Chapter 22

Nutrition and Digestion

PowerPoint Lectures for

Campbell Essential Biology, Fourth Edition
Eric Simon, Jane Reece, and Jean Dickey
Campbell Essential Biology with Physiology, Third Edition
Eric Simon, Jane Reece, and Jean Dickey

Lectures by Chris C. Romero, updated by Edward J. Zalisko

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Biology and Society:

Stomach Surgeries
Obesity in the United States:
Occurs in 1 of every 3 adults
Contributes to 300,000 deaths per year

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Figure 22.00

 Gastric bypass surgery, the most common weight-loss surgery

in the U.S.:
Reduces the stomach to the size of a chicken egg
Bypasses the first section of the small intestine

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 Weight-loss surgeries are successful in 90% of patients, when

combined with:
A healthy diet
Exercise

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OVERVIEW OF ANIMAL NUTRITION

Animals must feed on other organisms to acquire nutrients.

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Animal Diets
Herbivores mainly feed on plants.
Carnivores eat animals.
Omnivores eat plants and animals.

Video: Lobster Mouth Parts

Video: Shark Eating a Seal
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ANIMAL DIETS
Herbivore
(mainly eats plants
or algae)

Carnivore
(mainly eats animals)

Omnivore
(regularly eats animals
as well as plants or algae)

Figure 22.1

Herbivore
(mainly eats plants
or algae)

Figure 22.1a

Carnivore
(mainly eats animals)

Figure 22.1b

Omnivore
(regularly eats animals
as well as plants or algae)

Figure 22.1c

The Four Stages of Food Processing

Ingestion is another word for eating.
Digestion is the breakdown of food to small nutrient molecules.

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 Absorption is the uptake of the small nutrient molecules by cells

lining the digestive tract.
Elimination is the disposal of undigested materials from the food
we eat.

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Digestion: A Closer Look

Mechanical digestion
Begins the process
Involves physical processes like chewing

Chemical digestion is the chemical breakdown of food by

digestive enzymes.

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 Digestion dismantles food to create:

Molecules small enough for cells to absorb
Monomers that can be recombined into new molecules

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Cheese protein
(a polymer of amino acids
in a specific sequence)

Amino acid
monomer

Breakdown of protein
by human digestive
system
Amino acids

Figure 22.2-1

Cheese protein
(a polymer of amino acids
in a specific sequence)

Amino acid
monomer

Breakdown of protein
by human digestive
system
Amino acids
Absorption of amino acids by cells lining the small
intestine; transport via bloodstream to other cells

Figure 22.2-2

Cheese protein
(a polymer of amino acids
in a specific sequence)

Amino acid
monomer

Breakdown of protein
by human digestive
system
Amino acids
Absorption of amino acids by cells lining the small
intestine; transport via bloodstream to other cells
Human protein

Cells use amino acids from the cheese and

other foods to produce new human proteins

Figure 22.2-3

 Chemical digestion proceeds via hydrolysis, chemical reactions

that break down polymers into monomers using water in the
process.
Like most biological reactions, digestion also requires enzymes.

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Protein

H 2O

Amino acid
OH

Enzyme
(pepsin)
Carbohydrate
H 2O

Sugar
OH

Enzyme
(amylase)
Fat
H2O

Fatty acid
Glycerol

H 2O

H
H O
H

H 2O

OH

OH

Enzyme (lipase)

Figure 22.3

Protein digestion
H2 O

Amino acid
OH

Enzyme
(pepsin)

Figure 22.3a

Carbohydrate digestion
Sugar

H2O
OH

Enzyme
(amylase)

Figure 22.3b

Fat digestion
H2O

Fatty acid
Glycerol
H
H O

H2O

H2O

OH

OH

Enzyme (lipase)

Figure 22.3c

Digestive Compartments
How do animals digest their food without digesting themselves?
In animals, chemical digestion is contained safely within some
kind of compartment.

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 Food vacuoles are:

Intracellular organelles filled with digestive enzymes
The simplest of all digestive compartments
Used by sponges as the only way to digest food

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 Gastrovascular cavities:
Are digestive compartments surrounded by cells
Have only a single opening

Video: Hydra Eating Daphnia

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MAIN TYPES OF DIGESTIVE COMPARTMENTS

Gastrovascular Cavity
Alimentary Canal (Digestive Tract)
Single
opening

Mouth

Anus
Food
(water
Flea)

Gastrovascular
Hydra cavity

Intestine

Food
particle
engulfed

Interior of
intestine
Earthworm

Figure 22.4

Gastrovascular Cavity
Single
opening

Food
(water
Flea)

Hydra

Gastrovascular
cavity

Food
particle
engulfed
Figure 22.4a

Alimentary Canal (Digestive Tract)

Mouth

Anus

Intestine

Interior of
intestine

Earthworm
Figure 22.4b

 Digestive tubes have two separate openings:

A mouth
An anus

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A TOUR OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

System Map

The human digestive system consists of:

A digestive tube, the alimentary canal
Accessory organs that secrete digestive chemicals

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ACCESSORY ORGANS
Salivary glands

ALIMENTARY CANAL
Mouth
Tongue
Pharynx

Esophagus

Liver
Gallbladder
Pancreas

Stomach
Small intestine
Colon of large intestine
Appendix
Rectum
Anus
Figure 22.5

The Mouth
The mouth, or oral cavity, functions in:
Ingestion
The preliminary steps of digestion

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Incisors
Canine
Premolars

Teeth

Molars
Wisdom
tooth

Tongue

Opening of a
salivary gland duct
Figure 22.6

The Pharynx
The pharynx:
Connects the mouth to the esophagus
Opens to the trachea, which leads to the lungs

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 During swallowing, a reflex:

Tips the epiglottis
Closes the entrance to the windpipe

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NOT SWALLOWING
Tongue
Ball of
food
Pharynx

Trachea
(windpipe)
open

Epiglottis
up
Esophageal
sphincter
(contracted)
Esophagus
closed

Figure 22.7-1

NOT SWALLOWING

SWALLOWING STARTED

Tongue
Ball of
food
Pharynx

Trachea
(windpipe)
open

Epiglottis
up

Epiglottis
down

Esophageal
sphincter
(contracted)

Adams
apple

Esophagus
closed

Trachea
closed

Esophagus
open

Figure 22.7-2

NOT SWALLOWING

SWALLOWING STARTED

SWALLOWING FINISHED

Tongue
Ball of
food
Pharynx

Trachea
(windpipe)
open

Epiglottis
up

Epiglottis
down

Esophageal
sphincter
(contracted)

Adams
apple

Esophagus
closed

Trachea
closed

Esophagus
open

Epiglottis
up

Trachea
open

Esophageal
sphincter
(contracted)

Figure 22.7-3

The Esophagus
The esophagus:
Is a muscular tube
Connects the pharynx to the stomach
Moves food down by peristalsis, alternating waves of muscular
contraction and relaxation

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Esophageal sphincter
(contracted)
Food ball
Relaxed muscles
Contracted muscles
Relaxed muscles

Stomach
Figure 22.8

The Stomach
The stomach:
Can store food for several hours
Churns food into a thick soup called chyme

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 Fluid in the stomach contains gastric juice, made of:

Strong acid
Digestive enzymes
Mucus
The enzyme pepsin, which digests proteins

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Esophagus

Sphincters control
the flow into and
out of the stomach.

Accordion-like
folds allow the
stomach to expand.

Food
particle

Small intestine

Stomach lining
secretes gastric
juice (acid, enzyme
molecules,
and mucus).
Figure 22.9

Stomach Ailments
Heartburn is caused by backflow of chyme into the esophagus.
Gastric ulcers are:
Erosions of the stomach lining
Often caused by the bacterium Helicobacter pylori

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Helicobacter pylori bacteria

Colorized SEM

Stomach mucus

Figure 22.10

The Small Intestine

The small intestine is:
The longest part of the alimentary canal
The major organ for chemical digestion and absorption of nutrients into
the bloodstream

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Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine

Most chemical digestion occurs in the duodenum, the first part of
the small intestine.
In the duodenum, chyme from the stomach mixes with:
Pancreatic juice
Bile
A digestive juice secreted by the intestinal lining

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Bile

Liver

Stomach

Bile
Gallbladder
Intestinal
enzymes

Chyme

Pancreatic juice
Duodenum of
small intestine

Pancreas
Figure 22.11

 The pancreas secretes juice that neutralizes stomach acids in the

duodenum.
The liver secretes bile, which:
Is stored in the gallbladder
Helps digest fats

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Absorption of Nutrients
In the duodenum, nutrients are:
Completely digested
Ready to be absorbed

Nutrients only enter the body if they are absorbed into the walls
of the digestive tract.

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Mouth

Alimentary
canal

Anus

A finger through a hole

Food through the alimentary canal

Figure 22.12

 Villi and microvilli on the surface of the small intestine increase:

The surface area
Capacity for absorption

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Blood vessels

Muscle
layers
Intestinal wall
Villi

Interior of
intestine
Nutrient
absorption

Interior of
intestine
Nutrient
absorption
Microvilli
Epithelial
cells

Nutrient
absorption

Blood
capillaries
Blood

Lymphatic
vessel

Epithelial cells
and blood capillary

Villi

Figure 22.13

Blood vessels

Muscle
layers
Intestinal wall
Villi

Interior of
intestine
Nutrient
absorption

Figure 22.13a

Interior of intestine
Nutrient
absorption

Epithelial
cells

Blood
capillaries

Lymphatic
vessel

Villi

Figure 22.13b

Microvilli

Nutrient
absorption

Blood

Epithelial cells
and blood capillary

Figure 22.13c

The Large Intestine

The large intestine is:
Shorter, but wider, than the small intestine
About 1.5 meters in length

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 The colon:
Forms the main portion of the large intestine
Absorbs water from the alimentary canal
Produces feces, the waste product of food

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 The rectum:
Forms the last 15 cm (6 inches) of the large intestine
Stores feces until elimination

The anus:
Consists of two sphincters
Regulates the opening of the rectum

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Colon of
large
intestine

Sphincter
End
of small
intestine

Small
intestine
Rectum
Anus

Nutrient
flow
Appendix
Figure 22.14

Colon of
large
intestine

Small
intestine
Rectum
Anus
Figure 22.14a

Sphincter
End
of small
intestine

Nutrient
flow

Appendix
Figure 22.14b

 Food processing takes place along the alimentary canal.

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Mouth

Ingestion
Food into mouth
Food

Stomach

Small
intestine

Large
intestine
Anus
Figure 22.15-1

Mouth

Ingestion
Food into mouth
Digestion
Mechanical digestion
Chewing in mouth
Churning in stomach
Chemical digestion
Saliva in mouth
Acid and pepsin in
stomach
Enzymes in small
intestine

Food

Stomach

Small
intestine

Large
intestine
Anus
Figure 22.15-2

Mouth

Ingestion
Food into mouth
Digestion
Mechanical digestion
Chewing in mouth
Churning in stomach
Chemical digestion
Saliva in mouth
Acid and pepsin in
stomach
Enzymes in small
intestine

Absorption
Nutrients and water
in small intestine

Food

Stomach

Small
intestine

Water in large
intestine
Large
intestine
Anus
Figure 22.15-3

Mouth

Ingestion
Food into mouth
Digestion
Mechanical digestion
Chewing in mouth
Churning in stomach
Chemical digestion
Saliva in mouth
Acid and pepsin in
stomach
Enzymes in small
intestine

Absorption
Nutrients and water
in small intestine

Food

Stomach

Small
intestine

Water in large
intestine
Elimination
Feces formed in
large intestine
Elimination from anus

Large
intestine
Anus
Figure 22.15-4

HUMAN NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS

Proper nutrition helps maintain homeostasis.
A balanced diet provides:
Fuel for cellular work
Materials for building molecules
Essential nutrients for health

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Food as Fuel
Cells use cellular respiration to:
Extract energy stored in food molecules
Generate molecules of ATP to do work

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Fuel
(organic molecules
such as glucose)
O2

C6H12O6

Cellular
respiration

Mitochondrion

Cell

Figure 22.16-1

Fuel
(organic molecules
such as glucose)
C6H12O6

O2

Cellular
respiration

Mitochondrion

ATP
Cell

energy for
cellular work

Exhaust
CO2 and H2O
Figure 22.16-2

Calories
Calories are a measure of the energy:
Stored in your food
Used in daily activities

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 A calorie is the amount of energy required to raise the

temperature of one gram of water by 1C.
A kilocalorie (kcal) is:
One thousand calories
The unit listed on food labels
Often called Calories with an uppercase C

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Metabolic Rate
The rate of energy consumption by the body is the metabolic
rate.
A persons metabolic rate consists of:
The basal metabolic rate (BMR), the amount of energy it takes to
maintain body functions
Energy needed for activities

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Table 22.1

Food as Building Material

Building blocks from the breakdown of organic molecules are
used to:
Repair tissues
Maintain tissues

Essential nutrients:
Are substances needed by the body but
Cannot be made in the body from other molecules

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Essential Amino Acids

In humans, eight essential amino acids:
Must be obtained from the diet
Are in different proportions in different foods

All eight essential amino acids can be consumed by eating:

Meat, eggs, or milk or
A variety of plants, typically grains and legumes

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Corn

Methionine
Valine
Threonine
Phenylalanine
Leucine
Isoleucine
Tryptophan
Lysine

Essential amino acids

Rice and beans

Bread and peanut butter

Beans
and other
legumes

Rice and tofu

Complete meals
Figure 22.17

Corn

Methionine
Valine
Threonine
Phenylalanine
Leucine
Isoleucine
Tryptophan
Lysine

Essential amino acids

Beans
and other
legumes

Figure 22.17a

Rice and beans

Bread and peanut butter

Rice and tofu

Complete meals

Figure 22.17b

Vitamins
Vitamins:
Are organic molecules
Are required in the diet in very small amounts
Usually assist enzymes in catalyzing metabolic reactions

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 Too much or too little of most vitamins can cause harm.

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Table 22.2

Table 22.2a

Table 22.2b

Minerals
Minerals are inorganic substances required in the diet.
Too much or too little of most minerals can cause harm.

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Essential Fatty Acids

Our cells make fats and other lipids by combining fatty acids and
other molecules.
Essential fatty acids must be obtained in the diet.

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Decoding Food Labels

On food labels, the FDA requires:
The list of ingredients
Key nutrition facts

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Figure 22.18

Figure 22.18a

Figure 22.18b

NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS
Nutritional dysfunction can cause severe problems.

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Malnutrition
Malnutrition refers to health problems caused by an:
Improper or
Insufficient diet

Protein deficiency:
causes the most human suffering
Is concentrated where there is a great gap between food supply and
population size

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Figure 22.19

Eating Disorders
Eating disorders:
Affect millions of Americans
Are more common in women than men
Result in malnutrition

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 Anorexia nervosa is self-starvation, even when a person is

underweight.
Bulimia involves:
Binge eating
Purging through induced vomiting
Abuse of laxatives, and/or
Excessive exercise

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Obesity
Obesity:
Is an inappropriately high body mass index (BMI)
Is the nutritional disorder of greatest concern
Affects about one-third of all Americans
Increases the risk of heart attack, diabetes, and other diseases

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39

57
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58

Ov
e
BM rwe
I 2 igh
t
5
29

Height

511
510
59

N
BM orm
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I1
8.5
2
4

61
60

Un
de
BM rwei
g
I<
18 ht
.5

64
63
62

53
52

Ex
tr

51
50
411
410

100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260

Weight (pounds)
Figure 22.20

The Process of Science:

Can a Gene Make You Fat?
Observation: A mutation in a particular gene in mice leads to a
significant increase in body fat.
Question: How does a small change in DNA cause such a large
change in the body?
Hypothesis: The mutant mice become overweight because their
obese gene fails to produce a protein called leptin.

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 Experiment: Mutant and normal mice were injected with leptin

or a saline control.
Results: Mutant mice that received leptin ended the study
weighing about half as much as mutant mice that received the
saline control.
Over 100 genes are known to contribute to weight maintenance in
humans.
Genetics only partially explains why weight control can be
difficult.

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Figure 22.21

Mutant mice with

defective obese gene
Mice with normal
obese gene

10

20

30

40

50

60

Ending body mass (g)

Injected
with saline

Injected
with leptin

Figure 22.22

Evolution Connection:
Fat and Sugar Cravings
Most Americans:
Crave fatty and/or sweet foods
Eat too many high-calorie foods

A feast-or-famine existence in our ancestors may have favored

individuals who gorged themselves on rich, fatty foods.

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Figure 22.23

Ingestion

Food

Food in
mouth

Figure 22.UN1-1

Digestion
Ingestion

Food

Mechanical
digestion

Chemical
Small
digestion molecules
Food in via enzymes
mouth

Figure 22.UN1-2

Inside
body

Digestion
Ingestion

Food

Mechanical
digestion

Absorption

Chemical
Small
digestion molecules
Food in via enzymes
mouth

Figure 22.UN1-3

Inside
body

Digestion
Ingestion

Food

Mechanical
digestion

Chemical
Small
digestion molecules
Food in via enzymes
mouth

Absorption

Elimination
Undigested
materials

Figure 22.UN1-4

Alimentary
canal
Mouth
(oral cavity)

Accessory
organs

Digestion
Mechanical

Salivary glands Chewing

Chemical

Absorption

Salivary
amylase

Pharynx and
esophagus
Stomach
Liver,
Small intestine gallbladder,
pancreas
Large intestine

Churning

Acid and
pepsin (in
gastric juice)
Other
enzymes

Nutrients
and water
Water

Anus
Figure 22.UN2

Cellular
respiration

Food

Cell

O2

Figure 22.UN3-1

Cellular
respiration

Food

ATP

Cell

O2

CO2

H2O

Figure 22.UN3-2

ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS
Essential
Amino Acids
Required
for protein
production

Vitamins

Minerals

Organic molecules
required in very
small amounts

Essential chemical
elements from
inorganic
compounds

Essential
Fatty Acids
Required
to make cell
membranes

Figure 22.UN4

Nutrition
Facts
Serving Size 1 Cookie 28 g/1 oz
Servings Per Container 8
Amount Per Serving

Calories 140

Calories from Fat 60

% Daily Value*
11%
Total Fat 7g
15%
Saturated Fat 3g
Trans Fat 0g
3%
Cholesterol 10mg
3%
Sodium 80mg
6%
Total Carbohydrate 18g
4%
Dietary Fiber 1g
Sugars 10g

Protein 2g
Figure 22.UN5