THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

IN CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

A Resistor in the s Domain

+
R i

v=Ri (Ohms Law).

+
V

R I

V(s)=RI(s

An Inductor in the s Domain

Initial current of
I0
+
v

L i

di
vL
dt
V(s)=L[sI(s)-i(0-)]=sLI(s)-LI0

V ( s) I0
I ( s)

sL
s

sL I
V

+
V

LI0

sL

I0
s

A Capacitor in the s Domain

Initially charged to V0 volts.

dv
iC
dt

I ( s ) C [ sV ( s ) v (0 )] sCV ( s ) CV0
V0
1
V ( s)
I ( s)
s
sC
I
+
v

i
C

1/sC

1/sC

+
CV0

V0/s

The Natural Response of an RC Circuit

C

+
V0

t=0

+
R
i v

1/sC
V0/s

I
R

V0
1

I ( s ) RI ( s )
s sC
V0

CV0
I ( s)

RCs 1 s

R
1
RC

V0

i e u( t ) v Ri V0e u( t )
R
t

RC

RC

The Step Response of a Parallel Circuit

The Step Response of a Parallel Circuit

I dc
V V
sCV

R sL
s
V
IL

I dc

s
2

1
s

RC
LC
I dc

s[ s
2

LC

1
s

RC
LC ]

384 105
IL
s( s 2 64000 s 16 108 )
384 105
IL
s( s 32000 j 24000)( s 32000 j 24000)
K1
K2
K 2*
IL

s
s 32000 j 24000 s 32000 j 24000
384 105
3
K1

24

10
16 108
384 105
K2
20 103 126.870
( 32000 j 24000)( j 48000)
i L ( t ) [24 40e 32000 t cos(24000t 126.870 )]u( t )mA

Transient Response of a
Parallel RLC Circuit

Replacing the dc current source with a sinusoidal current sou

sI m

i g I m cos t A I g ( s )
V ( s)

1C s
2

s ( 1 RC ) s ( 1 LC )

Im

V ( s)

I g ( s)

s2

( s 2 2 )[ s 2 ( 1 RC ) s ( 1 LC )]

Im

LC s
V ( s)
I L ( s)
2
sL
( s 2 )[ s 2 ( 1 RC ) s ( 1 LC )]

I m 24mA,

40000rad / s

384 105 s
I L ( s) 2
( s 16 108 )( s 2 64000 s 16 108 )
K1
K 1*
K2
K 2*
I L ( s)

s j 40000 s j 40000 s 32000 j 24000 s 32000 j 24000

384 105 ( j 40000)
K1
7.5 103 900
( j 80000)(32000 j16000)(32000 j 64000)
384 105 ( 32000 j 24000)
K2
12.5 103 900
( 32000 j16000)( 32000 j 64000)( j 48000)
i L ( t ) (15sin 40000t 25e 32000 t sin 24000t )u( t )mA
i Lss 15sin 40000t mA

Mesh Analysis

Mesh Analysis (cont.)

336
(42 8.4 s ) I1 42 I 2
s
0 42 I1 (90 10 s ) I 2
40( s 9)
15
14
1
I1

s( s 2)( s 12) s s 2 s 12
168
7 8.4
1.4
I2

s( s 2)( s 12) s s 2 s 12

i1 (15 14e
i2 (7 8.4e

2 t

2 t

12 t

1.4e

)u( t ) A,

12 t

336(90)
i1 ( )
15 A,
42(48)
15(42)
i2 ( )
7A
90

)u( t ) A.

Thevenins Theorem
Use the Thevenins theorem to find vc(t)

Thevenins Theorem (cont.)

(480 / s )(0.002 s )
480
VTh

4
20 0.002 s
s 10
0.002 s(20) 80( s 7500)
ZTh 60

4
20 0.002 s
s 10

480 /( s 10 )
IC
4
5
[80( s 7500) /( s 10 )] [(2 10 ) / s]
6s
6s
IC 2

6
2
s 10000 s 25 10
( s 5000)
30000
6
IC

2
s 5000
( s 5000)
ic ( t ) ( 30000te

5000 t

6e

5000 t

)u( t ) A
5

1
2 10
6s
12 10
Vc
IC

2
sC
s ( s 5000)
( s 5000)2
5

vc ( t ) 12 10 te

5000 t

u( t )V

MUTUAL INDUCTANCE EXAMPLE

i2(t)=?

60

i1 (0 )
5 A, i2 (0 ) 0
12

MUTUAL INDUCTANCE EXAMPLE

Using the T-equivalent of the

inductors, and s-domain
equivalent gives the following circuit

(3 2 s ) I1 2 sI 2 10
2 sI1 (12 8 s ) I 2 10

2.5
1.25 1.25
I2

( s 1)( s 3) s 1 s 3
i2 ( t ) 1.25(e

3 t

)u( t ) A

THE TRANSFER FUNCTION

The transfer function is defined as the ratio of the Laplace

transform of the output to the Laplace transform of the input
when all the initial conditions are zero.

Y ( s)
H ( s)
X ( s)

Y(s) is the Laplace transform of the output,

X(s) is the Laplace transform of the input.

THE TRANSFER FUNCTION (cont.)

I ( s)
1
H1 ( s )

Vg ( s ) R sL 1/ sC
sC
2
s LC RCs 1
V ( s)
1
H 2 ( s)
2
Vg ( s ) s LC RCs 1

EXAMPLE
Find the transfer function V0/Vg
and determine the poles and zeros
of H(s).

EXAMPLE
V0 Vg

V0
V0 s

6 0
1000
250 0.05 s 10
1000( s 5000)
V0 2
V
6 g
s 6000 s 25 10
V0
1000( s 5000)
H ( s)
2
Vg s 6000 s 25 106
p1 3000 j 4000,
p2 3000 j 4000
z1 5000

Assume that vg(t)=50tu(t). Find v0(t). Identify the

transient and steady-state components of v 0(t).

1000( s 5000)
50
V0 ( s ) H ( s )Vg ( s ) 2
6
2
( s 6000 s 25 10 ) s
K1
K1*
K2 K3

2
s 3000 j 4000 s 3000 j 4000 s
s
K1 5 5 10

79.7 , K 2 10, K 3 4 10

4 3000 t

v0 [10 5 10 e

cos(4000t 79.7 )

10t 4 10 ]u( t )V

The transient component is generated by the poles of

the transfer function and it is:

4 3000 t

10 5 10 e

cos(4000t 79.7 )

The steady-state components are generated by the po

of the driving function (input):

(10t 4 10 )u( t )

Time Invariant Systems

If the input delayed by a seconds, then

L x ( t a )u( t a ) e
Y ( s ) H ( s ) X ( s )e
1

y( t ) L

as

X (s)

as

Y ( s ) y( t a )u(t a )

Therefore, delaying the input by a seconds simply delay

response function by a seconds. A circuit that exhibits t
characteristic is said to be time invariant.

Impulse Response

If a unit impulse source drives the circuit, the response of th

circuit equals the inverse transform of the transfer function

x(t ) ( t ) X ( s ) 1
Y ( s) H ( s)
1

y( t ) L

H ( s ) h( t )

Note that this is also the natural response of the circuit

because the application of an impulsive source is equivalent
to instantaneously storing energy in the circuit.

CONVOLUTION INTEGRAL
x(t)

y(t)
x(t)

y(t)

Circuit N is linear with no initial stored energy. If we

know the form of x(t), then how is y(t) described?
To answer this question, we need to know something
about N. Suppose we know the impulse response of the
y( t ) h( t )
system.
x( t ) ( t )

(1)

x(t)

y(t)
t

Instead of applying the unit impulse at t=0, let us suppose

that it is applied at t=. The only change in the output is a
time delay.
(t )

h( t )

Next, suppose that the unit impulse has some strength

other than unity. Let the strength be equal to the value of
x(t) when t= . Since the circuit is linear, the response
should be multiplied by the same constant x()
x ( ) ( t )

x( )h( t )

Now let us sum this latest input over all possible values of
and use the result as a forcing function for N. From the
linearity, the response is the sum of the responses
resulting from the use of all possible values of

x ( ) ( t )d

x( )h( t )d

From the sifting property of the unit impulse, we see that the
input is simply x(t)
X(t)

x( )h( t )d

Our question is now answered. When x(t) is known, and

h(t), the unit impulse response of N is known, the response
is expressed by

y( t ) x ( )h( t )d

This important relation is known as the convolution

integral. It is often abbreviated by means of

y( t ) x( t ) * h( t )

Where the asterisk is read convolved with. If we let

z=t-, then d=-dz, and the expression for y(t)
becomes

y( t ) x( t z )h( z )dz x ( t z )h( z )dz

y( t ) x ( t ) * h( t ) x ( z )h( t z )dz x ( t z )h( z )dz

y( t ) x ( t ) * h( t ) x ( z )h( t z )dz x ( t z )h( z )dz

Convolution and Realizable Systems

For a physically realizable system, the response of the

system cannot begin before the forcing function is
applied. Since h(t) is the response of the system when the
unit impulse is applied at t=0, h(t) cannot exist for t<0. It
follows that, in the second integral, the integrand is zero
when z<0; in the first integral, the integrand is zero when (tz) is negative, or when z>t. Therefore, for realizable
systems the convolution integral becomes
t

y( t ) x ( t ) * h( t ) x ( z )h( t z )dz 0 x ( t z )h( z )dz

EXAMPLE
x(t)

h(t)

h( t ) 2e u( t )

y(t)

x ( t ) u( t ) u( t 1)

y( t ) x ( t ) * h( t ) 0 x ( t z )h( z )dz

0 [u( t z ) u( t z 1)][2e u( z )]dz

Graphical Method of Convolution

Since h(z) does not exist prior to t=0 and vi(t-z) does
not exist for z>t, product of these functions has nonzero
values only in the interval of 0<z<t for the case shown
where t<1.

y( t ) 0 2e z dz 2(1 e t )

0 t 1

When t>1, the nonzero values for the product are

obtained in the interval (t-1)<z<t.

y( t ) t 1 2e dz 2(e 1)e

t 1

EXAMPLE
Apply a unit-step function, x(t)=u(t), as the input to a
system whose impulse response is h(t) and determine the
corresponding output y(t)=x(t)*h(t).

h(t)=u(t)-2u(t-1)+u(t-2),

When t<0, there is no overlap and y(t)=0 for t<0

For 0<t<1, the curves overlap from z=0 to z=t and
product is 1. Thus,

y( t ) 0 1dz t

0 t 1

When 1<t<2, h(t-z) has slid far enough to the right to

bring under the step function that part of the negative
square extending from 0 to z=t-1. Thus,
t 1

t 1

y( t ) 0 1dz t 11dz z 0 z t 1 2 t ,

1 t 2

Finally, when t>2, h(t-z) has slid far enough to the right so
that it lies entirely to the right of z=0

t 1

y( t ) t 2 1dz t 11dz 0

t2

Convolution and the Laplace Transform

Let F1(s) and F2(s) be the Laplace transforms of f1(t) and
f2(t), respectively. Now, consider the laplace transform of
f1(t)*f2(t),

L f1 ( t ) * f 2 ( t ) L

f ( ) f 2 (t
1

)d

Since we are dealing with the time functions that do

not exist prior to t=0-, the lower limit can be changed
to 0

L f1 ( t ) * f 2 ( t ) 0 [ 0 e st f1 ( ) f 2 ( t )dt ]d

f1() does not depend on t, and it can be moved outside

the inner integral

st
e f 2 ( t )dt ]d
0
s( x )
e
f 2 ( x )dx ]d
0

L f1 ( t ) * f 2 ( t ) 0 f1 ( )[

0 f1 ( )[

0 f1 ( )e

sx
e f 2 ( x )dx ]d
0

0 f1 ( )e s [ F2 ( s )]d

F2 ( s )0 f1 ( )e s d

F1 ( s ) F2 ( s )

STEADY-STATE SINUSOIDAL RESPONSE

x(t )
If the input of a circuit is a sinusoidal function

A cos( t )

x ( t ) A cos t cos A sin t sin

( A cos ) s ( A sin )
X ( s) 2
2
2
2
s
s
A(s cos sin )
=
2
2
s
A(s cos sin )
Y ( s) H ( s)
2
2
s

The partial fraction expansion of Y(s) is

K1
K1*
Y ( s)

terms generated by the poles of H(s)

s j s j

If the poles of H(s) lie in the left half of the s plane, the correspon
time-domain terms approach zero as t increases and they do not
contribute to the steady-state response. Thus only the first two t
determine the steady-state response.

H ( s ) A( s cos sin )
K1
s j
s j
H ( j ) A( j cos sin )

2 j
H ( j ) A(cos j sin ) 1

H ( j ) Ae j
2
2

H ( j ) H ( j ) e j ( )
A
j[ ( )]
K 1 H ( j ) e
2
y ss ( t ) A H ( j ) cos[ t ( )]

EXAMPLE
If the input is 120 cos(5000t+300)V, find the steady-state expression

1000( s 5000)
H ( s) 2
s 6000 s 25 106
1000(5000 j 5000)
H ( j 5000)
6
6
25 10 j 5000(6000) 25 10
1 j1
2

450
j6
6
v0 ss

120 2

cos(5000t 300 450 )

6

=20 2 cos(5000t 150 )V

THE IMPULSE FUNCTION

IN CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

The capacitor is charged to an initial voltag

V0 at the time the switch is closed. Find the
expression for i(t) as R
0

V0

R ( 1 sC ) ( 1 sC )
1

V0

s(

R
1
RC e )

C1C 2
V0 t / RC
i (t )
e
u( t )
Ce

C1 C 2
R

As R decreases, the initial current (V0/R)

increases and the time constant (RCe)
decreases. Apparently i is approaching an
impulse function as R approaches zero.

The total area under the i versus t curve represents the total char
transferred to C2 after the switch is closed.
V0

Area=q 0

e t / RC dt V0C e
e

Thus, as R approaches zero, the current approaches an impulse

strength V0Ce.i

V0C e ( t )

Series Inductor Circuit

Find v0. Note that opening the switch force

an instantaneous change in the current L2.

i1 (0 ) 10 A,

i2 (0 ) 0

V0 [(100 s ) 30]
V0

0
2 s 15
3 s 10
40( s 7.5) 12( s 7.5)
V0

s( s 5)
s5
60
10
V0
12
s
s5
v0 ( t ) 12 ( t ) (60 10e

5 t

)u( t )V

Does this solution make sense? To answer this question, first

us determine the expression for the current.

(100 s ) 30 4
2
I

5 s 25
s s5
i ( t ) (4 2e

5 t

)u( t ) A

Before the switch is opened, current through L 1 is 10A and in L2 is 0 A

after the switch is opened both currents are 6A. Then the current in L
changes instantaneously from 10 A to 6 A, while the current in L 2 cha
instantaneously from 0 to 6 A. How can we verify that these instanta
jumps in the inductor current make sense in terms of the physical be
of the circuit?

Switching operation places two inductors in series. Any impulsive vo

appearing across the 3H inductor must be balanced by an impulsive
voltage across the 2H inductor. Faradays law states that the induce
voltage is proportional to the change in flux linkage
(v d dt )
before switching

L1i1 L2i2 3(10) 2(0) 30 Wb-turns

After switching

( L1 L2 )i (0 ) 5i (0 )
30
i (0 )
6A
5

Thus the solution agrees with the principle of the

conservation
of flux linkage.

Impulsive Sources

When the voltage source is applied, the initia

energy in the inductor is zero; therefore the i
current is zero. There is no voltage drop acro
so the impulsive source appears directly acro

V0
1 t

i 0 V0 ( x )dx i (0 )
A
L
L

Thus, in an infinitesimal
moment, the impulsive
voltage source has stored
2
1 V0
1 V02

2 L
2 L
L

Current in the circuit decays to

zero in accordance with the
natural response of the circuit

V0 (
i e
L

)t

u( t )

EXAMPLE
Find i(t) and v0(t) for t>0

50 100 s 30

25 5 s
12
4

s5 s
i ( t ) (12e 5 t 4)u( t ) A
60
60
V0 (15 2 s ) I 32

s5 s
v0 ( t ) 32 ( t ) (60e

5 t

60)u( t )V