MEC 3766

Instrumentation and Avionics

Avionics

4. VHF Omni-Range (VOR)

VOR, short for VHF Omni-directional Range, is a type of radio navigation
system for aircraft. VORs broadcast a VHF radio composite signal including the
station's Morse code identifier (and sometimes a voice identifier), and data that
allows the airborne receiving equipment to derive the magnetic bearing from the
station to the aircraft (direction from the VOR station in relation to the earth's
magnetic North, at the time of installation).

VHF frequencies : 108.00 MHz ~ 117.95 MHz.

Not affected by ground or skywaves and
propagate in nearly straight line.
Main Instrumentation Landing System, ILS

4. VHF Omni-Range (VOR)

The VOR display has four
elements:
(A) A Rotating Course Card, calibrated from 0
to 360, which indicates the VOR bearing
chosen as the reference to fly TO or FROM.
Here, the 345 radial has been set into the
display. This VOR gauge also digitally displays
the VOR bearing, which simplifies setting the
desired
track.
(B) The navigation
Omni Bearing
Selector, or OBS knob, used to manually rotate the course card.
(C) The CDI, or Course Deviation Indicator. This needle swings left or right indicating the
direction to turn to return to course. When the needle is to the left, turn left and when the
needle is to the right, turn right, When centered, the aircraft is on course. Each dot in the
arc under the needle represents a 2 deviation from the desired course.
(D) The TO-FROM indicator. This arrow will point up, or towards the nose of the aircraft,
when flying TO the VOR station. The arrow reverses direction, points downward, when
flying away FROM the VOR station. A red flag replaces these TO-FROM arrows when the
VOR is beyond reception range, has not been properly tuned in, or the VOR receiver is
turned off. Similarly, the flag appears if the VOR station itself is inoperative, or down for
maintenance. Here, the aircraft is flying TO the station.

4. VHF Omni-Range (VOR)

How use VOR
Get your bearing. Determine which radial you are on
by turning the OBS (Omni Bearing Selector) knob until
the CDI (Course Deviation Indicator) needle is centered
and you have a FROM indication.
Looking at the picture to the right, you can see
that the needle is centered and it gives a FROM
indication (small white triangle pointing to
"FR"), so the aircraft is on the 254 degree
radial.
It doesn't matter what the heading of the
aircraft is, it is located somewhere along a line
254 from the VOR station.
In order to fly to the station, you would first
twist the OBS knob until the needle is centered
and the white triangle points to "TO." Note that
this will be 74 degrees, exactly 180 from the
current radial. Now turn the aircraft to this new
heading and keep the needle centered- this will

4. VHF Omni-Range (VOR)

TRACK ARROW:
Each time a track is chosen on the
selector, the area around the VOR
station is divided into halves or
envelopes.
The CDI shows the pilot in which of
these two envelopes the aircraft is
located.
If the aircraft is flying along the track
line, the CDI is centered.
If the aircraft flies to the left of the track
arrow (as in position A), the CDI swings
to the right.
If the aircraft moves to the right of the
track arrow, (position B), the CDI swings
to the left.

REFERENCE LINE:
When the pilot selects a track, the
position of another line is established, a
reference line perpendicular to the
track arrow and intersecting it at the
station.
The reference line divides the VOR
reception area into two additional
sectors.
The area forward of the reference line is
the FROM envelope and the area to the
rear of the reference line is the TO
envelope.
The TO-FROM indicator shows in which
envelope the aircraft is located.
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In the To-From Envelopes figure, above,

4. VHF Omni-Range (VOR)

This aircraft is north of the Omni station, flying

on the 345 radial away FROM the station. The
left-right needle shows the aircraft on course
and the FROM flag is present, pointing down,
toward the station behind.

This aircraft is south of the Omni station.

Its magnetic course is 345. Walk through
the steps below to understand the VOR
reading.
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4. VHF Omni-Range (VOR)

(A), the aircraft shows a centered CDI,

indicating that it is on track; the TO-FROM
flag shows FROM.

(H), shows a right CDI

and a FROM indication.

(F), shows a right CDI

and a TO indication.

(B), shows a left CDI

and a FROM indication.

(D), shows a left CDI

and a TO indication.

(E), the aircraft shows a centered CDI,

indicating that it is on track; the TO-FROM
flag shows TO.
Aircraft at positions (C) and (G) are in the area of ambiguity. In this area, the opposing
reference signals that actuate the TO-FROM indicator cancel each other and produce an OFF
Indication.
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4. VHF Omni-Range (VOR)

Accuracy
The predictable accuracy of the VOR system is 1.4. However,
test data indicate that 99.94% of the time a VOR system has
less than 0.35 of error.
Internal monitoring of a VOR station will shut it down if the
station error exceeds 1.0.
ARINC 711-10 January 30, 2002 states that receiver accuracy
should be within 0.4 degrees with a statistical probability of
95% under various conditions. Any receiver compliant to this
standard should meet or exceed these tolerances.

4. VHF Omni-Range (VOR)

Range
Terminal VOR (T)
1,000 ft. ~ 12,000 ft

out to 25 NM

Low Alt. (L)

1,000 ft. ~ 18,000 ft

out to 40 NM

High Alt. (H)

1,000 ft. ~ 14,500 ft
14,500 ft. ~ 60,000 ft
18,000 ft. ~ 45,000 ft

out to 40 NM
out to 100 NM
out to 130 NM

4. VHF Omni-Range (VOR)

JAX
o ROM
170 F

Using the VOR

Each station has a name and a
unique three-letter identifier
SAWGY

175o TO

an example:
Trip from Jacksonville International
(JAX) to Tampa International Airport
(TPA), via Ormond Beach (OMN).
Saint

FROM

or

Augie

211 o

Intersection areas:
Saint Augustine
(SAWGY).
? (JENSN)

OMN

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TO

JENSN

TPA
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4. VHF Omni-Range (VOR)

Find a Location
Location: To find out where we
are, find two ground facilities that
will give us a good angle between
them.
Tune each in, and center the
needles with a FROM indication.
We are on the intersection of
those two radials.
(If only have one VOR, then we'll
have to flip between their
frequencies and re-center.)
In this example, the plane is at the intersection of the RED
074 radial, and the GRN 157 radial.

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4. VHF Omni-Range (VOR)

Error in VOR
navigation
flight technical error
A fault of the aircrew keeping the CDI centered or setting OBS
to the correct Human
course.errors, effective crew training and VOR indicator is
easily read and adjusted.

VOR station errors

i. ground station errors due to electrical or mechanical
system errors.
ii. propagation of signal from VOR station
timely and continuously calibration procedures

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5. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

supplies an information of distance from a station and also supplies

ground speed.
was developed in 1949, as a part of TACAN (tactical air
navigation, a military system).
is composed of a UHF transmitter/receiver (interrogator) in the
aircraft and a UHF receiver/transmitter (transponder) on the
ground.
operates on frequencies in the UHF spectrum between 962 MHz
1213 MHz.
VOR and DME beacons are often located at the same position, with
same
published
the
TACAN
stations
werefrequency.
co-located with VOR : VORTAC, the TACAN
distance measurement is available with VOR bearing to
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determine position.

5. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

Distance calculation
A radio pulse takes around 12.35 microseconds to travel one
nautical mile (1.852 km) to and from; this is also referred to as a
radar-mile.

2 x 1852 m
T
12.35s
8
3x10 m / s
The time difference (delay) between interrogation
and reply is T0 microsecond.
The distance formula is used by the DME receiver to calculate the
distance from the DME station

t T0
12.35s

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5. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

Distance calculation

INTERROGATION

REPLY

The distance of 5 NM is displayed by DME

t 5 x 12.35s T0
if T0 = 50 microsecond.

t 111.75s
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5. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

Distance calculation

If a DME operating on a channel of 112.10 MHz receives a

reply from a ground transponder 115 ms after the transmission
of an interrogation. What is the distance to the DME ground
station?

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6. TACAN (Tactical Air Navigation)

has two function:
a DME, use 15Hz sine modulation
a VOR, use 135Hz (is 9th harmonics of the 15Hz sine mod.)
modulation

The TACAN antenna consists of a central radiating element and

nine rotating elements. It rotates 15 rev. per second ( 900 RPM ).

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7. LORAN-C (Long Range Navigation)

LORAN-C, which was first established in 1958, is the last form of

Loran still in use today.
LORAN-C is the logical extension of LORAN-A and offers greatly
increased range and accuracy to the user.
It operates in the 90-110KHz band
LORAN-A has been discontinued throughout the
world.

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7. LORAN-C (Long Range Navigation)

LORAN-C Chain
For hyperbolic navigation, four LORAN transmitters chained
into a Group Repetition Interval (GRI)
Every LORAN transmitters is separated between 150 NM and
250 NM
GRI coverage more than 1,000 NM
Every LORAN chain in the world uses a unique GRI, the number
of which, when multiplied by ten, gives how many
microseconds pass between pulses from a given station in the
chain.
NOCUS (North Continental United States), the GRI is 8290.
the span is 82,900 microseconds.
There are fewer than 40 chains in the world.
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7. LORAN-C (Long Range Navigation)

LORAN-C Station

to cover the USA territorial, 6 chains are needed

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7. LORAN-C (Long Range Navigation)

LORAN-C Chain
China,
US,
South Korea,
Japan,
India,
Saudi Arabia,
France,
.
.
.

China North Sea (GRI 7430)

Southeast U.S. (GRI 7980)
East Asia (GRI 9930)
North West Pacific (GRI 8930)
Calcutta (GRI 5543)
Saudi Arabia South (GRI 7030)
Lessay (GRI 6731)

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7. LORAN-C (Long Range Navigation)

LORAN-C Chain

GRI 2

GRI 1

Overlap 2 LORAN-C
Chain:
NOCUS GRI 8290 and SOCUS GRI 9610, how often will the two
overlap?

T N x 82.9 x 10-3 M x 96.1 x 10-3

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7. LORAN-C (Long Range Navigation)

LORAN-C Chain
NOCUS GRI 8290 and SOCUS GRI 9610, how often will the two
overlap?

T N x 82.9 x 10-3 M x 96.1 x 10-3

N 961 ; M 829
T 79.7second
The chains overlap about every 80 seconds

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7. LORAN-C (Long Range Navigation)

LORAN-C Chain

GRI 2

GRI 1

The chains overlap about every 80 seconds

If the aircraft at this area before the period of overlap, no signal on LORAN indicator.
BLINKING area

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