MEC 3766

Instrumentation and Avionics

Avionics
Terrestrial Landing Aids

INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)

assists pilot in positioning the aircraft for landing under low
visibility conditions such as fog, snow, low clouds, rain and
darkness.
like VOR, ILS uses VHF frequencies and directional antennas.
Two transmitter of VHF are located at the runway.
- Localizer : provide for azimuth information (108 MHz~112
MHz).
- Glide slope : provide for elevation information (328
MHz~336 MHz).
provides information about :
- azimuth reference
- approximate range
- elevation reference

INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)

Localizer
Radiates two lobes, one is modulated at 90
Hz, and other is modulated at 150 Hz.
The two lobes overlap at equal strength along
the centerline of the runway, and create a
zone of overlap in the center.

90 Hz

150 Hz

INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)

Use of Localizer

Localizer indicator
Glide slope

90 Hz

150 Hz

Course Deviation
Indicator with Localizer
and Glide slope
deviation bars

INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)

Use of Localizer

Localizer indicator
Glide slope
Fly right
Course Deviation
Indicator with Localizer
and Glide slope
deviation bars

Fly left

Ideal flight path

INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)

Glide slope
Radiates two lobes, one is modulated at 90 Hz,
and other is modulated at 150 Hz.
Provides a glide path that is typically 3o to the
horizontal.
The two lobes overlap at equal strength along the
glide path of 3o.
90 Hz

runway

150 Hz

INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)

Use of Glide slope
Fly down
aircraft
above glide
path

runway

Fly up
aircraft
below glide
path

INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)

Marker Beacons
The distance information is given to the approaching aircraft from
ground antennas about 6 NM from the end of the runway.
Outer marker (400 Hz). (Blue color, 2 dash beep per second)
Middle marker, 1.1km from runway (1300 Hz). (Amber color, dot and
dash)
Inner marker, 0.3km from runway (3000 Hz). (White color, 6 dots per
second)
inner marker

Middle marker

Outer marker

runway

1.1 km

7.2 km

0.3 km

MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM

(MLS)
o Microwave Landing System (MLS) has been adopted by ICAO as the
standard precision approach system to replace ILS.
o MLS provides precision navigation guidance for alignment and
descent of aircraft on approach to a landing by providing azimuth,
elevation and distance
MLS FUNCTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Approach azimuth
Back azimuth
Approach elevation
Range
Data communications

Two hundred channels are available between 5031 and 5090.6 MHz.

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MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM

(MLS)
ILS LIMITATIONS

single approach path

site sensitivity and high installation

costs

multi path interference

channel limitations - 40 channels only

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MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM

(MLS)

MLS ADVANTAGES
1.

elimination of ILS/FM broadcast interference problems

2.

provision of all-weather coverage up to 60 degrees from runway centerline,

from 0.9 degree to 15 degrees in elevation, and out of 20 nautical miles (NM)

3.

capability to provide precision guidance to small landing areas such as rooftop heliports

4.

continuous availability of a wide range of glide paths to accommodate STOL

and VTOL aircraft and helicopters

5.

accommodation of both segments and curved approaches

6.

availability of 200 channels - five times more than ILS

7.

improved guidance quality with fewer flight path corrections required

8.

provision of back-azimuth for missed approaches and departure guidance

9.

elimination of service interruptions caused by snow accumulation

10. lower site preparation, repair, and maintenance costs

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MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM

(MLS)
MLS AZIMUTH COVERAGE
60 degree

Back azimuth

Approach azimuth

20 NM

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MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM

(MLS)
MLS AZIMUTH COVERAGE

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MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM

(MLS)
MLS ELEVATION COVERAGE

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MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM

(MLS)
MLS GROUND CONFIGURATION

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MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM

(MLS)
AZIMUTH / ELEVATION DETERMINATION

12 V (T0 t )

: azimuth/elevation angle in degrees

V : scan velocity in degrees per second
T0 : time delay
t : elapsed time between the TO and FRO scans

ICAO standard values for MLS parameters

Function
Approach AZ
Hi Rate App
AZ
Back AZ
Approach EL
Flare EL

Max.Scan
Angle

t for Max Scan

Angle

T0

(Degrees)

(ms)

(ms)

-62 to +62

13

6.8

(Degrees/
s)
0.020

-42 to +42
-42 to +42
-1.5 to +29.5
-2 to 10

9.0
9.0
3.5
3.2

4.8
4.8
3.35
2.8

0.020
-0.020
0.020
0.010

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MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM

(MLS)
AZIMUTH / ELEVATION DETERMINATION
In approach, if elapsed time between the TO and FRO scans is
6.6 ms, determine azimuth angle of the aircraft

12 0.02(6.8 6.6) . 1,000

=2 degrees right

In approach, if elapsed time between the TO and FRO scans is

2.85 ms, determine elevation angle of the aircraft

12 0.02(3.35 3.85) . 1,000

elevation angle is 5 degrees

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RADAR ALTIMETER

radio altimeter, provides indication of height above ground

has an accuracy to within 10 feet

time measurement uses pulses similar to DME radar

FMCW Radar Altimeter, uses frequency modulation continuous wave

transmission
(Frequency-modulated continuous-wave)
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RADAR ALTIMETER

FMCW Radar Altimeter, uses frequency modulation continuous wave

transmission

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GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM (GPWS)

GPWS is a system designed to alert pilots if their aircraft is in

immediate danger of flying into the ground or an obstacle.

The system monitors an aircraft's height above ground as

determined by a radar altimeter

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Standard GPWS Modes

Mode 1: Excessive Descent Rate
Clearance vs. descent rate

Mode 2: Rising Terrain

Clearance vs. closure rate

Mode 5: Descent Below Glideslope

Mode 6: Altitude/Bank Angle Callouts
Mode 7: (Reactive) Windshear

Mode 3: Descent After Takeoff

Clearance vs. altitude loss

Mode 4: Terrain Clearance

Clearance vs. air speed & flight phase
Vertical Speed or Baro Alt Rate
translates to descent rate;
Change in Inertial/Baro Alt
translates to altitude loss

Rad Alt translates

to terrain clearance

Change in Rad Alt over time

translates to terrain closure rate

All 7 GPWS Modes Basic to EGPWS

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GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM (GPWS)

The modes or flying

configurations
1. Excessive descent rate ("PULL UP" "SINKRATE")
at 2400 feet AGL : descent rate over 4000
ft/min
at 500 feet AGL : descent rate over 2000
ft/min
2. Excessive terrain closure rate ("TERRAIN" "PULL
UP")
at 1500 feet AGL : closure rate over 3500
3. ft/min
Altitude loss after take off or with a high power setting ("DON'T
SINK")
at 50 feet Above ground : loss over 10 ft
at 1000 feet Above ground : loss over 100 ft
terminated for altitudes higher than 1500 ft
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GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM (GPWS)

The modes or flying
configurations
4. Unsafe terrain clearance ("TOO LOW - TERRAIN" "TOO LOW GEAR" "TOO LOW - FLAPS")
at less than 500 feet AGL with gear up "TOO LOW - GEAR"
for higher airspeeds the warning is "TOO LOW - TERRAIN
for lower airspeeds the warning is "TOO LOW - FLAPS"
5. Excessive deviation below glideslope ("GLIDESLOPE")
at above 150 feet above ground, and 1.3 dots below the
glide path.
6. Excessively steep bank angle ("BANK ANGLE")
7. Windshear protection ("WINDSHEAR")
predict wind shear.

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Enhanced GPWS

Same form factor as GPWS

Utilizes existing provisions
Standard GPWS maintained
Enhanced GPWS deployed
Database: PCMCIA based
Approved!
TSO-C92c, TSO-C117a, and TSO-C151a
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Terrain Awareness System

Terrain Display
(Shades Of Green,
Yellow & Red)
CAUTION TERRAIN
Caution Area
(Solid Yellow)
TERRAIN TERRAIN
PULL UP!
Warning Area
(Solid Red)
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EGPWS save - Tucson, Arizona

Informal Comments from Pilot:
. . . in January, we were cleared for a visual approach to ILS
RWY 11 at Tucson at approx. 20 NM from the airport. I
normally refuse a visual approach clearance as it is something I
do not do unless I am inside the outer marker . . . but I did. It
was a beautiful clear night, no moon, lots of stars. No traffic
and the lights of Tucson. My co-pilot was flying us on an
intercept to the localizer, and started us gradually down.
Everything was smooth. He called for Flap 1. We did not
realize it at the time, but we were falling into a sucker trap.
Our instrument and altitude scan had gone to hell.
At about 15NM from touchdown, we suddenly got an EGPWS
Caution Terrain ! and a big splash of yellow on both EFIS and
it scared the hell out of me. Looking out we could see that the
stars and ground lights were slowly disappearing behind a
vague dark line that was ahead of us. The EGPWS alert was a
wakeup call to not descend any further. We immediately began
a modest climb, and the alert stopped immediately, the yellow
terrain on the EFIS navigation display turned to green then to
all dark as we acquired the glideslope. The rest was an
uneventful approach and landing.
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EGPWS Terrain Display at 4,500 feet

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EGPWS Terrain Display at 4,200 feet

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EGPWS Terrain Display at 4,000 feet

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MEC 4768
Instrumentation and Avionics
Avionics
Satellite Navigation

Global Positioning System (GPS)

GPS was started in the 1970s by the US Department of Defense

(DoD).
provide a worldwide three-dimensional information system of:
- latitude
- longitude
- altitude
- time and speed
main advantages of GPS are:
- accuracy
- worldwide application
- signals that are not contaminated by the weather

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Global Positioning System (GPS)

The Signal
each satellite transmits
two different signals (L Band signals)
L1 : at 1575.42 MHz
L2 : at 1227.6 MHz
two levels of accuracy
SPS : Standard Positioning Service
PPS : Precision Positioning Service
Types of codes are transmitted:
C/A : Coarse/Acquisition (also called clear acquisition, is not
encrypted)
P : Precision
SPS
PPS
(Unauthorized)

Civilian operator
Military
operator
->
->

(Authorized)
C/A code
P code
~1

~10 m
m

~3m

~ 10 cm

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Global Positioning System (GPS)

GPS Basic
consists of three basic
components:
Space segment
Ground segment
User
segment

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Global Positioning System (GPS)

GPS Basic
The Space segment
consists of 21 operations satellites and three active spares.
in determining of the position, altitude and speed, uses 3
operation satellites.
uses the forth satellite to synchronize satellites clock.
for ground operation (at a known altitude), uses three satellites.
Two-dimensional (Two D).

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Global Positioning System (GPS)

GPS Basic
The Space segment
the satellite geometry
21

Argument of latitude

160o
120

13

80

10

18

40

19

Equator
320

280

240

15

12
20

11

32.847o

17

14

200

Right ascension

92.847o

152.847o

16

212.847o

272.847o

332.847o

Orbital planes

all 6 orbital planes are inclined by 55o to the equatorial

plane and rotated by 60o with respect to their neighboring
planes.

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Global Positioning System (GPS)

GPS Basic
the satellite orbit
Using Newtons law,
The force on the satellite due to earth
gravity
2

F G.M e M s / R

G
is the universal gravitation constant
Me is the mass of the earth
Ms is the mass of the satellite
R
is the distance from the satellite to the center of the
earth

The centripetal force on the satellite

F M s R 2
is the angular velocity of the satellite or orbit speed of the satellite

The orbit
distance

R /2

1/ 3

= G . Me
= 398,601 km3/s2

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Global Positioning System (GPS)

GPS Basic
the satellite orbit
Sidereal day, is one rotation of the earth about its axis
relative to a distant star.
The earth orbits around the sun 365.25 days (1 year).
The earth rotates about its axis 366.25 times each
year.
1 sidereal day = 365.25/366.25 solar days
= 0.9972696 solar days
= 0.9972696 x 86,400 seconds
= 86,161.1 seconds

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Global Positioning System (GPS)

GPS Basic
the satellite orbit
The satellite orbits twice in a sidereal day
the angular velocity of the satellite

2
rad / s
1
2 x86,164.1

0.0001458 rad / s

the radius of the satellite

398,601
R
2
0.0001458

1/ 3

26,580 km

the altitude of the satellite

h 26,580 - 6,378 20,202 km
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Global Positioning System (GPS)

GPS Basic
Perturbations of the GPS Orbit
the oblateness of the earth
gravitational attraction of the moon and
the sun
radiation pressure from the sun
The satellite has automatics system to adjust the orbit and
position,
the orbits of GPS satellites are
stable.

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Global Positioning System (GPS)

GPS Clocks
The distance of the satellite to the
user
R t c/2
R
is the distance
t is the elapsed time for round trip, outbound and returned
signal
c
is the speed of radio waves

The radio waves, electromagnetic energy takes 3

nanoseconds to travel one meter.
To allow no more 10 meters of GPS ranging error, the GPS
clock must be within 30 nanoseconds.

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Global Positioning System (GPS)

GPS Clocks
GPS Time
the GPS uses its own standard called GPS time
worldwide standard time uses UTC, Universal Coordinated Time
time is determined at the Greenwich observatory, Greenwich Mean
Time (GMT)
Finding Position from Time
Measurements
the GPS uses the earth centered earth fixed (ECEF) coordinate
system.

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Global Positioning System (GPS)

GPS Clocks
Correcting the User Clock

time clock of Users are not synchronic with GPS satellite

the range measured without the clock correction is called pseudo
range
uses 4 GPS satellite to measure and correct range caused by Users
R t c
clock bias
R d{( X s1 , Ys1 , Zs1 ), (X u , Yu , Z u )} R

the pseudo range User to GPS satellite 1 : 1

R d {( X s2 , Ys2 , Zs2 ), (X u , Yu , Z u )} R

the pseudo range User to GPS satellite 2 : 2

R d {( X s3 , Ys3 , Zs3 ), (X u , Yu , Z u )} R

the pseudo range User to GPS satellite 3 : 3

R d {( X s4 , Ys4 , Zs4 ), (X u , Yu , Z u )} R

the pseudo range User to GPS satellite 4 : 4

Solve unknown : (X u , Yu , Z u ) and R

where (X u , Yu , Z u )in the ECEF coordinate system
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Global Positioning System (GPS)

PRN Codes

Pseudorandom noise (PRN) are used in the GPS

Transmitter and receiver of the GPS system use the random
frequency
where the sequence can be predicted with a formula

Generating PRN Codes

PS Accuracy
P = PDOP x R

PDOP is position dilution of precision

P
is the RMS position error
R
is the RMS ranging error

On average, PDOP is about 2.0. If a GPS receiver corrects pseudo

range to within 1 meter because of PDOP, on average the actual
position output of the GPS receiver is 2 meters, RMS.
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Global Positioning System (GPS)

PS Accuracy
P = PDOP x R

PDOP is position dilution of precision

P
is the DRMS position error
R
is the DRMS ranging error
2
2
R d lat
d long

dlat : standard deviation of latitude

dlong : standard deviation of longitude

On average, PDOP is about 2.0. If a

GPS receiver corrects pseudo range
to within 1 meter because of PDOP,
on average the actual position
output of the GPS receiver is 2
meters, RMS.

CEP: circular error probable

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