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BUILD ON UNDERSTANDING OF WRITTEN AND SPOKEN MODES
TYPICAL STYLISTIC FEATURES OF FORMAL TEXTS IN WRITTEN AND
SPOKEN MODES PARTICULARLY IN LITERATURE AND THE PUBLIC
DOMAIN
EXAMINE A RANGE OF TEXT TYPES (LEGAL DOCUMENTS,
BUREAUCRATIC POLICIES, OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS, INFORMATIONAL
PROSE, LITERATURE, SPEECHES, LECTURES, OATHS, LITURGIES,
PERFORMANCES AND MONOLOGUES)
THE SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF FORMAL TEXTS:
REINFORCING SOCIAL DISTANCE AND AUTHORITY
ESTABLISHING EXPERTISE
PROMOTING SOCIAL HARMONY AND NEGOTIATING SOCIAL TABOOS
CLARIFYING, MANIPULATING OR OBFUSCATING
Levels of formality
Remember that levels of formality
operate on a continuum.
Frozen style
Formal Style
Consultative Style
Casual Style
Intimate Style
Sir, Madam
Jonesie, Jacko
Darling, snookums
These styles may depend on a
range of social and situational
factors.
Information
Instruction
Persuasion
Entertainment
Ceremony/Ritual
TEXT TYPES
Information
Instruction
Persuasion
Entertainment
Ceremony/ritual
Parody of the formal register-what features of formal language does Blackadder make fun of?
change
Elevated lexemes
Complex clause structures
MAKING FUN OF FORMAL FEATURES OF
LANGUAGE
need to flow
Dialogue from
COHERENCE
If a text communicates its message clearly and
concisely, it can be said to have coherence.
The order in which information is presented in a
text is an important factor in determining how
coherent it is likely to be for a reader.
What is coherent for one reader, may not be
coherent for another.
try this
Put these sentences in their correct order.
1 But her brother, lying opposite, filled his cheeks with air and
blew hard.
2 He cant get out; he cant get a hold of it, Morvenna cried.
3 The ant fell back to the pit bottom, and in a moment the
little fury of jaws burst out at it, seized it, vanished again.
4 Only a flurry of sand in the bottom of the little pit marked for
a few seconds the ants last struggle.
5 She thrust suddenly with the end of a twig, trying to push the
ant up the shifting sand slope of the pit.
What clues did you use to help you decide on the correct order?
Deixis
Correlative conjunctions
Both and (addition): while BOTH slang AND
Activity
Identify the types of cohesive tiespronoun reference, deixis,
substitution, ellipsis, conjunctionin the
following sentences. Make a table with the headingsword or
phrase, cohesive tie and item tie refers to.
1 I went to Bali last year and I want to go there again soon.
2 Thats my favourite pizza too.
3 What about this end here, though?
4 Those are nice too.
5 Subaru four-wheel drive. Gripping stuff.
6 Jim caught a cold because he fell in the creek.
7 Feels right.
8 Equally important, however, is the way buildings and spaces relate together.
exchange
Variables may include formality at work to the pub with
friends.
Standard language in writing is likened to the uniform
practice, especially in formal written language.
It is less ambiguous, more expansive and cohesive, makes
explicit aspects of context can be left out in informal speech
and writing.
Users of formal language are more likely to consider how
their audience may interpret it, be more conscious of the
effectiveness and the impact of their language and pay more
attention to information flow (ordered).
(VATE)
LL 99 101 Range of different formal
varieties
Legal English
The language of wine description
An email message
Political speech
Police v Butler
The language of TV chefs
Activities
Bring in written texts to create a class folio of texts to
be examined
Pay particular attention to literary texts great for
looking at stylistic features but also looking a shifting
degrees of formality
Speeches are very good for syntactic patterning
Poetry great for phonological patterning
Make sure you look at formal public documents
(contracts, policy papers etc) for stylistic features
Alliteration involves sequences of words that begin with the same consonant sound.
It is obvious today that America has defaulted on this promissory note, insofar as her citizens of color are concerned.
Lexical choice
1. Read the preface to Samuel Johnsons dictionary. Highlight the formal lexical choices.Pg 91
appropriate
Latin felicitatem
Penultimate
Second last
Latin penultima
Sojourn
A temporary stay
Terminated
ended
Latin terminatus
Categorisation
Latin categoria
Vocabulary
Stock of words
Latin vocabularium
Romance and classically inspired vocabulary is part of the elevated style of modern-day formal
expression.
Lexical choice:
Hierarchy of style-words from different origins have strikingly different social and stylistic
connotations. (The carpet analogy used in LL p107)
1.
English (Germanic origin) shorter, more concrete, stylistically neutral, fundamental
everyday vocabulary. Also includes grammatical words a and the and the four-letter
words.
2.
French lexical items of refinement and nuance
3.
Latin/Greek-words with connotations of learning and science and abstraction
Eg. Quack-Doctor-Physician
Ask-question-interrogate
Rise-mount-ascend
The English=colloquial, The French= more formal, The Latin=more elevated still. Eg pg 108 LL
. Germanic gives us the nouns while the romance languages gives us the
adjectives.
. Certain semantic fields will be characterised by their relative formality. Subjects that are
taboo mean that obscure vocabulary are often used to describe them. Eg poor impoverished
Activity 7. page 157 , taboo will have elevated lexemes to describe them politically correct
2. Compounding-to combine two (or more) free-standing morphemes; LL. 111 case
study
3. Acronyms-are words formed from the initials of other words, serving either as proper names or
they are specific to the specialist registers of certain occupations.
9, 13 and 14
Semantic Features
Denotation/Connotation-because connotations are related to real
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
parallelism
Parallelism involves the repetition of a series of grammatical structures, most
often for stylistic reasons that underline the semantic structure of the text
Parallelism may also emphasise the similarities or differences between each
grammatical sequence in the overall construction
In Earl Spencers eulogy at the funeral of his sister Diana, Princess of Wales, he
began with these words:
I stand before you today the representative of a family in grief, in a country in
mourning before a world in shock
(rule of three: poetic, lends a beautiful rhythm/symmetry to it stylistic
reason: sense of poetic rhythm semantic structure: emphasising similarities
of the way people are reacting to the death of the princess: family (intimate),
country (local), world (distant) all have grief in common. UNDERSCORING A
SHARED GRIEF not only is he in grief, but so to is the rest of the world.
ACTUAL CONSTRUCTION: prepositional phrasing
passives
If the subject is the doer of the action, the sentence is active
If the subject is the receiver of the action, the sentence is
passive
The boy ate the apple (active)/the apple was eaten by the
boy (passive)
I ate the pizze (active)/the pizza was eaten by me (passive)
Information Flow
How speakers and writers package their messages; how
they provide cues to help their audience interpret a text
Formulaic guideposts in written and spoken texts
through lexicon and grammatical devices
3 principles:
Given information comes before the new: LL p125
Cohesive texts: topic before comment: LL 127
Front focus: initial position for extra focus: LL 127
Much to learn, you still have.
Information Flow: p.169, question 25
There construction
The there acts as a dummy subject pronoun in order
Anaphoric reference
Pronouns or expressions that refer back to
OLD vs NEW
Information that is new, interesting or out of the
Ellipsis
Have you read Harry potter?
no I havent
No, I havent read it
No I havent read Harry Potter
substitution
I dont have a pen. Do you have one
Fronting
What you say doesnt matter bringing you to the front
extraposition
If a subject of a sentence is an entire clause it can be
Celft constructions
Clefting has the effect of dividing an original
need politeness
Establishing expertise- jargon
Promoting social harmony and negotiating social
taboos- euphemisms, political correctness,
discriminatory language
Clarifying, manipulating or obfuscating-doublespeak
Degree of indirectness
Lend me a pen.
Can you lend me a pen?
Could you lend me a pen?
Would you lend me a pen?
Would you be so kind as to lend me a pen?
Would it be possible for you to lend me a pen?
Do you think you might be able to lend me a pen?
Is there any chance of borrowing a pen?
I seem to have left my pencil case at home
Establishing expertise
Examine jargon of specialised fields (medicine, law,
control over = interesting that people choose to discriminate against people because of these aspects
Taboo Language: language that deals with topics and behaviour
which are viewed as negative in a given culture. Taboo subjects
frequently include death, bodily parts, functions and processes.
Taboo Language also includes terms or expressions which may
give offense, including expletives, blasphemy, and abuse of
minorities.
Political Correctness: is expressed through the use of words and
phrases that encourage an attitude of tolerance and acceptance
of a variety of life experiences which formerly were sometimes
considered less acceptable. avoidance of discriminatory language = acknowledges that language
has power inclusivity and promotes social harmony people who think that political correctness
bars their freedom are basically saying that they have no right to discriminate and be racist.
Taboo
The Language of Good Manners
THE NAME ORIGINALLY CAME FROM TONGAAND REFERRED TO BEHAVIOURS
CONSIDERED DANGEROUS TO SOCIETY- THE
CONSEQUENCES OF BREAKING TABOO WERE
THEREFORE LITERALLY LIFE AND DEATH.
THESE DAYS TABOO REFERS TO SOCIAL
SANCTIONS PLACED ON BEHAVIOUR THAT IS
REGARDED AS DISTASTEFUL OR IMPOLITE.`
HTTP://
WWW.YOUTUBE.COM/WATCH?V=TPCTGNYA3
DY
Notes on video
HER CONTENTION IS THAT EUPHEMISMS ARE GOOD HELP TO CONCEAL EMBARASSMENT
Linguistic deoderents, smoke screens, the fig leaves of our language (they help us cover up the embarrassing bits) euphemisms as a way of expressing taboo
topics
Functions: politeness, hiding skeletons in cupboards (avoid the harsh realities of life)
Skeletons in cupboards die and kill: have lived, gone to sleep, moved on, passed away
1900s: legs were considered taboo trousers
Monosyllable: c word
Deliberatly befuddling language turns the loss of human life inot collateral damage: give an appearance of solidity to pure air, to make murder respectable
Upgrade and inflate: praire oyesters and fried (culinary
Life insurance = insurance for when your dead
Everything is cosmetic: shopping centre
Its all dishonest media is superb for euphemism, doesnt say it like it is
The obscenity lies in the actual words themselves pungency of them can often bring down other words
Cock: haycocks =
ATTENTION RABBITS
Fcuk
Nebulusness: the groin provides the fig leaf anything in the general vicinity: can happen
Ambiguity of slang like fanny and prat GENITAL FLIP FLOP
Tiptoe around any sensitive topic
Older is not as old as old ARE ORANGES ARE SWEETER PROVIDE A COMPARISON AND GIVE THE SELLER A GETAWAY
Language can work to influence our memory and perceptions send a certain image and signal
Euphemisms are doomed they will diminish, and next gen will learn them as the direct topic one generation will apply a euphmism to a taboo but the
pants)
Motherload I just dropped
Birthed a creamy bohemian
Porcelain prison
Little astronaut
Lay a brick
Your business
Cont
Euphemism-the polite thing to do, avoid offence SUPPORT
and across time. Since the 70s (cultural revolution) restrictions have
loosened on sex, death, drunkedness and blasphemy- evident on what
is now permissible on national TV domain is much less
conservative now
However, what was permissible in the 19th century is not only
considered dysphemistic now but also against the law. Since anti
discrimination laws of the 1980s language users are much more
conscious of language used to discuss gender, sexuality, disability and
race.
my brother is disabled the disability is their identity
my brother has a disability saying there is more to the person
than his disability
SPASTIC: was an accurate term but now is a negative connotation
Homophobia: homosexuality was illegal until 1992
Euphemism
Unmentionables, unhintables, crumbs, c*** (visual
Techniques
Metaphor to be with Jesus
Circumlocution- terminological inexactitude eg. A
Euphemism
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9SOBdkwDgPo
Notes of video
Doing it circumlocution, but taboo has
but about deliberate obfuscation and manipulation to avoid the truth politicians, military (death, civilian casualties: collateral damage)
Types of Euphemisms
1. To Soften an Expression
Some euphemisms are used in order to make a blunt
2. To Be Polite
Other euphemisms are used to take the place of words
Dysphemism
Harsh, offensive expressions substituted for milder ones in
Euphemisms to be Impolite-Dysphemisms
In some cases, euphemisms are intentionally a grosser or less pleasant way
of saying something. These are usually used when people are being sarcastic
or trying to make light of a serious subject or make it seem less serious.
Examples include:
1. Batting for the other side instead of homosexual
2. Bit the big one instead of died
3. Bit the farm instead of died
4. Cement shoes instead of dead
5. Bit the dust instead of died
6. Croaked instead of dead
7. Kick the bucket instead of die
Activities: Taboos (euphemism/dysphemism): p. 169, questions 27,
28, 29, 30 and 31
Political correctness
Likened to Euphemisms with attitude: to help remove
Principles of NonDiscriminatory
Language
Using language in an inclusive way, which shows respect for, and
sensitivity towards, all members of the community.
As well as avoiding offence, it is about treating each other with
dignity and as equal members of an integrated community.
Terms disappear, reemerge and are revised. Everyone needs to
be mindful of changing expressions and meanings in everyday
usage, as they emerge.
Avoiding language choices that depict stereotypical
characteristics; draw attention to physical characteristics, sex,
age, cultural background, sexual preference or religion; or that
give irrelevant information.
Discriminatory Language
Discourse may be overtly or covertly sexist or
racist.
Prejudice is passed on by erecting stereotypical
boundaries between groups.
In covert racism or sexism it is intended that the
readers (or hearers) opinion be manipulated
through language such as:
Racist discourse ( examples:LL.140-143)
Sexist discourse (examples: LL. 143-145) see PPT:
How language represents women.
Racist and sexist discourse: p.174, question 33
need politeness
Establishing expertise- jargon
Promoting social harmony and negotiating social
taboos- euphemisms, political correctness,
discriminatory language
Clarifying, manipulating or obfuscating-doublespeak
Clarifying, manipulating or
obfuscating
Doublespeak is the use of language features (such as complex sentences, euphemisms,
Andrew Denton's Randling programme had some excellent examples of double-speak Ep. 4
There was one authentic example: "a turbine disk liberation event" to describe part of the
plane falling off
Theses others were from the panel to describe a similar event:
a partial surrender to gravity
temporary altitude alleviation
a safety demonstration reinforcement scenario
an unplanned fuel saving phenomenon
an inflight structural emancipation
an expedited landing catalyst
an accidental mechanical divorce
a standard procedural black box evolution
we've decided to open the bar and offer free drinks to passengers in economy
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vuEQixrBKCc-
( to 5minutes)
US military used doublespeak to gloss over realities of the
Nominalisation
The process of changing verbs, (and adjectives and
adverbs) into nouns
When a verb is nominalised, it becomes a concept
rather than an action.
As a consequence, the tone of the writing will
sound more abstract and also more formal.
At their best they help to express ideas, at their
worst they impede human communication
becoming concerned.
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern
among the police.
Germany invaded Poland in 1939. This was the
immediate cause of the Second World War
breaking out.
Germany's invasion of Poland in 1939 was the
immediate cause of the outbreak of the Second
World War.
Informal
Formal
In Summary:
Nominalisation constructs more abstract and
technical meanings.
By turning language elements into a noun we can
qualify, describe, classify, and qualify it as a thing.
By turning a verb, adjective or conjunction into a
thing it takes on a life of its own.
Nominalisation is a key way of moving up the
register continuum.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dNlkHtMgcPQ
Passive Voice
THE BOY ATE THE APPLE
THE APPLE WAS EATEN BY THE BOY
MARY WILL DRIVE THE VAN
THE VAN WILL BE DRIVEN BY MARY
IF THE SUBJECT IS THE "DOER OF THE
ACTION," THE SENTENCE IS ACTIVE.
IF THE SUBJECT IS THE "RECEIVER OF THE
ACTION," THE SENTENCE IS PASSIVE.
affiliation.
I was surprised by the teacher's lack of sympathy.
The teacher's lack of sympathy surprised me.
With five seconds left in the game, an illegal time-out was called by one of
the players.
With five seconds left in the game, one of the players called an illegal timeout.
The major points of the lesson were quickly learned by the class, but they
were also quickly forgotten by them.
The class quickly learned, and then quickly forgot, the lesson's major points.
Activity: Ensure you are familiar with and able to use the
following:
Taboo
Euphemism
Dysphemism
Values
Swearing
Non-discriminatory language
Political correctness
Social taboos
Public arena
Double speak
Discrimination
Social harmony
ACTIVITIES (L.L.)
Outcome task 1: p. 177, question 1.1
Outcome task 2: p. 177
Outcome task 3: p. 180
Outcome task 4: p. 182
I have a Dream
Read the transcript of Martin Luther Kings speech
carefully.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_YBplucfuk
Write an analytical commentary of the language