Intelligent Buildings

Intelligent Building
Technology
INTELLIGENT BUILDINGS
Definition:
A building that uses the latest advances in information
technology:
to enhance the way campus buildings work
to deliver new standards of performance and
profitability.
Advantages:
Higher levels of security and safety

Simplified operation for users and administrators
Simpler staff tracking
Reduced administration costs
Smartcards - single card for security and cash
transactions
Reduced system costs by sharing infrastructure

Easier integration into university systems (e.g. HR and
scheduling databases)
Information can be delivered to all interested parties in
the manner they need.
Increased mobility - not tied to a specialist workstation
Training is minimized using standard operating
environments.
Disadvantages:
Increased complexity of the system

Initial cost + cost of installing a cooling
system for the computers
Normal buildings last longer than intelligent
buildings
How can wireless technology support intelligent buildings?

Wireless technology can simplify a variety of tasks and cut
personnel costs:
Sensors can activate lawn sprinklers when the soil is too dry.
In bathrooms, paper towel holders and soap dispensers can be
connected wirelessly to the building's network. When soap runs
out, an e-mail can automatically alert the maintenance department.
Also it eases the movement of staff in the building. Instead of
going to certain floors to activate a device, they can do it wirelessly
using intelligent tools such as remote controls.
INTEGRATED BUILDING
MANAGEMENT
HVAC
SYSTEMS
DDC
CONTROLS
REFRIGERATION
LIGHTING
CONTROL
LIFT
MANAGEMENT
EMERGENCY
POWER SYSTEMS
HYDRAULICS
ENERGY
MANAGEMENT
ALARM
MONITORING
PLCS
Intelligent Building Technology
Introduction-Energy Management
Energy used in buildings accounts for almost half

of the total amount of energy consumed in the
European Community today.
Almost 85% of the energy used in buildings is for
temperature applications such as space and
water cooling/ heating.
Appropriate building designs involving clean and
efficient technologies are already available and
their use may help to reduce future energy
consumption as well as to provide a better quality
of life for citizens.

Introduction-Energy Management
With fossil fuels as the primary energy source, the

building sector currently produces 22% of total CO2
emissions in the EC. This is more than that produced by
the industrial sector.
Intelligently designed buildings are those that involve
environmentally responsive design taking into account
the surroundings and building usage and involving the
selection of appropriate building services and control
systems to further enhance building operation with a
view to the reduction of energy consumption and
environmental impact over its lifetime.

Energy in Buildings
Buildings are inherently linked to their usage and

surroundings and hence their indoor environment is the
result of a range of interactions affected by seasonal and
daily changes in climate and by the requirements of
occupants varying in time and space.
The design of buildings in the mid-late twentieth century

has sought to eliminate the effect of outdoor daily and
seasonal changes through the use of extensive heating,
cooling, lighting and ventilation equipment, resulting in
spiraling energy consumption and environmental impact.

Energy in Buildings
A more climate sensitive approach linked to the use of

advanced control systems allows the building occupants to
control their indoor environment whilst maximizing the
contribution of ambient energy sources to the creation of a
comfortable indoor environment through the use of a more
climate sensitive design approach.
Under almost all circumstances it is necessary at some point

in time to provide some form of auxiliary heating, cooling,
lighting or ventilation since natural sources cannot always
cover the requirements for thermal comfort, visual comfort
and IAQ that are the prerequisite for a well balanced,
comfortable and healthy indoor environment.

Energy in Buildings
The purpose of energy management in buildings, and

hence the role of the building energy manager, is to
identify the areas in building stock where energy is used
in excess.
Energy consumption in building is required for the

following uses:
Heating
Cooling
Ventilation
Lighting
Equipment and machinery
Domestic hot water
Intelligent Buildings
Technology
Indoor Comfort
Thermal comfort
Visual Comfort
Indoor air quality
Thermal Comfort

Thermal Comfort
Comfort is defined as the sensation of complete physical and

mental well being.
Thermal neutrality, where an individual desires neither a warmer
nor a colder environment, is a necessary condition for thermal
comfort.
The factors affecting comfort are divided into personal variables:
activity
clothing
and environmental variables,
air temperature,
mean radiant temperature
air velocity
air humidity

Thermal Comfort Energy Balance

Thermal Comfort Personal Variables
Clothing: describes the occupants thermal insulation against

the environment. This thermal insulation is expressed in clo
units.

Thermal Comfort Personal Variables
Activity: The metabolic rate is the amount of energy produced

per unit of time by the conversion of food. It is influenced by
activity level and is expressed in mets (1 met = seated
relaxing person).

Thermal Comfort Environmental Variables
Temperature
The average air temperature from the floor at a height
of 1.1 m.
Mean Radiant Temperature

The average temperature of the surrounding surfaces,
which includes the effect of the incident solar radiation.
Air Velocity
Which affects convective heat loss from the body, i.e.
air at a greater velocity will seem cooler.
Air Humidity
Which affects the latent heat losses and has a
particularly important impact in warm and humid
environments

Thermal Comfort Indices
Although the four parameters of air temperature, radiant

temperature, relative humidity and air movement are
generally recognized as the main thermal comfort
parameters, indoor environmental conditions in terms of
thermal comfort can generally be assessed through three
classes of environmental indices, namely:
Direct indices
Rationally derived indices
Empirical indices

Thermal Comfort Indices
Direct indices
dry-bulb temperature
dew-point temperature
wet-bulb temperature
relative humidity
air movement
Rationally derived indices
mean radiant temperature
operative temperature
heat stress, and
thermal stress
Empirical indices

Thermal Comfort PMV Index
The perceived need for both heating and cooling is to

achieve accepted standards of thermal comfort, usually
defined (directly or indirectly) by temperature limits.
Controversy exists as to what these standards of thermal

comfort are. It has been observed that there has been an
apparent discrepancy between comfort predictions using
models derived from laboratory experiments, such as
those by Fanger (1970), and subjective assessments of
comfort found in field studies. It has been found in a
compilation of results from field studies predominantly in
warm and hot climates by Humphreys (1978) that the
preferred comfort temperature in buildings was a function
of the average monthly outdoor temperature (To is the
mean monthly temperature):

The Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) is a widely accepted

mathematical expression of thermal comfort. This index is
a real number and comfort is obtained if it lies within the
specific limits of the comfort range. Since 1984, the index
which is calculated through a complex mathematical
function of human activity, clothing and environmental
parameters has been the basis of the international
standard ISO-7730.
This PMV is an index which predicts the mean value of

the votes of a large group of people, and is directly related
to the percentage of people dissatisfied (PPD), on the
following seven point thermal sensation scale: + 3 Hot, + 2
Warm, + 1 Slightly Warm, 0 Neutral, - 1 Slightly Cool, - 2
Cool, - 3 Cold.


The result of using Fangers equations seems to predict the need for
much more closely controlled conditions than are usually found in free
running buildings, in which people still seem to be comfortable. Some
of the possible explanations for the apparent discrepancy between the
prediction of the Fanger model and the findings of the Humphreys
survey, are:
The thermal comfort parameters, air temperature, radiant temperature
and air movement vary spatially in a room, and the actual values
experienced by an occupant may not be those described by a "roomaverage value".
Thermal comfort parameters vary with time whereas the Fanger model
predicts a response for steady conditions.
The description of clothing level assumed in the use of the Fanger
equation may not be the same as is actually worn in the real situation.
The insulation value of the clothing may not be as predicted from the
description of the clothing ensemble.
The metabolic rate as assumed from the description of the activity
may not be the same as the actual metabolic rate.
Visual comfort
Intelligent Buildings Technology

Visual Comfort
Visual comfort is the main determinant of lighting
requirements.
Good lighting provide a suitable intensity and direction of
illumination on the task area, appropriate colour rendering,
the absence of discomfort and, in addition, a satisfying
variety in lighting quality and intensity from place to place
and over time.
Peoples lighting preferences vary with age, gender, time
and season. The activity to be performed is critically
important.
Various agencies (ASHRAE, CIBSE, etc.) and text books
list optimal illuminances for different activities. These are
generally based on uniform and constant levels of artificial
light falling on the working plane.

Visual Comfort Illuminance levels

Visual Comfort
Natural light is a fluctuating source of light. It depends on the hour of

the day, the season, the climate and the latitude of the location.
The objective of a daylight technique consists of providing the best
possible indoor luminous environment as often as possible.
A luminous environment should be appropriate to the function of the
room: there should be enough light for reading, writing, or filing
documents.
Illuminance of 300 to 400 lux on a desk are often considered as
minimum required levels for most of office tasks. Hallways might
require lower levels, 100 lux, and commercial centres higher levels,
700 lux. These requirements are defined by CIE.
Performance does not depend only on these illuminance levels. The
location of the source of light with respect to the direction of
observation may require higher illuminance, for instant when the
observer faces a window.

Visual Comfort
The luminous environment should be comfortable, which
means that sources of glare should be avoided.
Oversized glazed windows with clear glazing are sources
of glare, and this can be fought in using multiple apertures,
if possible on different walls.
Glossy materials and inappropriate shading devices might
bring excessive amount of light in the field of vision.
Also, psychological aspects such as the quality of the
vision to the outside, the beauty of the design and the
attractiveness of the space are very important.

Visual Comfort
Natural light comes from three
directions:
Direct Sunlight
Diffuse light from the sky,

and
Light Reflections from the

Environment

Visual Comfort
The daylight factor is a measure of the daylight level at any position

indoors as a percentage of the illuminance levels outdoors. The
daylight factor at any point on a working plane is calculated in
terms of light coming directly from the sky (the sky component),
light reflected from outdoor surfaces (the externally reflected
component) and light reflected form surfaces within the room (the
internally reflected component). The average daylight factor in a
space can be calculated from:

Visual Comfort Indoor lighting distribution
Visual Comfort
If a predominately daylit appearance is required, then the daylight factor

should be 5% or more if there is to be no supplementary artificial
lighting, or 2% if supplementary lighting is provided.
Discomfort is caused when the eye has to cope with, simultaneously,
great differences in light levels, the phenomenon we know as glare.
Maximum recommended values for the ratio between different parts of a
visual field, the luminance ratio, as shown in the following table.
Indoor air quality

Indoor air Quality
A conflict has always existed between adequate ventilation and energy

costs has long existed.
During the last three decades, decreased ventilation rates for energy
conservation, along with increased use of synthetic (i.e. man-made)
materials in buildings have resulted in increased health complaints from
building occupants. However, energy efficiency and good indoor air quality
in buildings need not be mutually exclusive.
Good indoor air quality is a function of a number of parameters including:
the initial design and continuous maintenance of HVAC systems; use of low
toxic emittance building materials; and consideration of all sources of indoor
air pollution such as occupant activities, operation of equipment and use of
cleaning products.
In fact, in 1986 the WHO (World Health Organisation) reported that "energyefficient but sick buildings often cost society far more than it gains by energy
savings".
The result of the reductions in ventilation rates in buildings have led to the
so called "Sick Building Syndrome" (SBS) and "Building Related Illness"
(BRI).

Indoor air Quality Indoor pollutants
Every building has a number of potential sources of indoor air contaminants.

Some sources, such as building materials and furnishings, release
contaminants more or less continuously. Other sources are related to
occupant activities and therefore release contaminants intermittently.
Such activities include cooking, smoking, use of solvents, pesticides, paint,
and cleaning products, and operation of office machines and equipment.
High concentrations of pollutants can remain in the indoor air for long
periods after they are emitted. Although some sources may be common in
all building types, office and commercial buildings vary greatly from
residential buildings in terms of design, air handling systems and occupant
activities and therefore certain indoor air pollutant sources may be more
prevalent in some types of buildings.

Indoor air Quality Ventilation
There are two types of ventilation: natural and mechanical.

Natural ventilation includes the movement of outdoor air
through intentional openings such as doors and windows and
through unintentional openings in the building shell scuch as
cracks which result in infiltration and exfiltration.
Mechanical or forced ventilation is intentional ventilation
supplied by fans or blowers. These fans are usually part of the
buildings HVAC system which heats, cools, mixes and filters
the air being supplied to the building.
Technology
Climate
Climate
Climate responsive design in buildings takes into account

the following climatic parameters which have direct
influence on indoor thermal comfort and energy
consumption in buildings:
The air temperature,

The humidity,
The prevailing wind direction and speed,
The amount of solar radiation and the solar path.
Long wave radiation between other buildings and the
surrounding environment and sky also plays a major role
in building performance.
Climate
The outdoor air temperature has a significant effect on

building thermal losses due to conduction through the
walls and roof of the building, as well as affecting
ventilation and infiltration losses due to either
desirable or undesirable air changes.
In warm climates the relative humidity plays an
important role in determining thermal comfort levels,
since during warm weather the high pressure of water
vapour prevents the evaporation of perspiration from
the body thereby inhibiting the body from being
maintained at a comfortable temperature.
Climate
Prevailing wind speed and direction affect significantly

the building thermal losses during the heating season,
increasing both convection at exposed surfaces and
hence encouraging envelope losses and also by
increasing the air change rate due to natural ventilation
and infiltration. During the cooling season, the
knowledge of both the direction and wind speed permits
the design of the building to facilitate passive cooling.
The sun-path and the cloud cover determine the amount
of solar radiation impinging on differently inclined
surfaces and since the sun-path changes from season to
season, so does the amount of direct solar radiation
impinging on these different surfaces.
Macroclimate is a term referring to the general climatic character of a

region in terms of temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind, sunshine
and cloud cover. An appreciation of the overall characterisation of the
climate of a region is a fundamental requirement for climate
responsive building design, this affecting the general design principles
which should be followed.
Regional climatic factors are strongly affected by the local topography,
vegetation and the nature of the area, resulting in deviations from the
regional macroclimate. The effect of such factors results in climatic
characteristics known as the mesoclimate. Heavily vegetated or
densely built-up areas have a significant impact on the climate of a
specific location.
The conditions of the climatic parameters of a specific site or around a
building are termed the microclimate. Temperature, humidity, wind
speed, and solar radiation around a building can be affected by the
deliberate placement of vegetation, landscaping, water and fountains,
and positioning of constructions
Technology
Building Climate interaction
Building Envelope
The building envelope responds dynamically to the impact of the

outdoor climate on the envelope exterior and the effect of the
occupancy pattern and building usage on the interior.
However, the performance of the heating, ventilation and airconditioning systems, artificial lighting, fenestration opening and
shading can be harmonized and optimized in response to
occupancy needs and climatic conditions through a building
energy management system which allows direct control of the
necessary actuators either manually or automatically.
In this manner the individual components of the building can be
controlled to produce the best possible indoor environment with
minimum energy consumption.
Heat transfer
Conduction - C
Radiation - R
Convection - C

Heat transfer Conduction
Conductive heat transfer is a process by which thermal energy is

transmitted by direct molecular communication.
It is the only mechanism by which heat flows in an opaque solid.
Conduction in a translucent solid is accompanied by radiation, whilst
heat transfer through stagnant gases and liquids takes place by
conduction with some radiation. Convection enhances the thermal
equilibrium process in moving fluids. The thermal conductivity k of a
substance determines its ability to conduct heat.
Conductive heat transfer with respect to buildings concerns the heat
losses through the building envelope: the walls, windows and doors.
Heat transfer is caused by a temperature difference across the
envelope, always in the direction of the temperature gradient, with
energy entering the one surface at a higher temperature and leaving
the other surface at a lower temperature. Therefore, buildings are
generally affected by envelope losses in the winter and envelope
gains in the summer.

Heat transfer Conduction

Heat transfer Convection
Convection is a process of heat transfer by the combined action of

heat conduction, energy storage and mixing motion.
Convection is combined to fluids only and requires an external force
-either forced or natural (buoyancy)- to be present.
The rate of heat transfer depends on the temperature difference
between the fluid and the surface and the convective heat transfer
coefficient h.
The convective heat transfer co-efficient is a function of
1) the geometry of the system,
2) the velocities and mode of fluid flow,
3) the physical properties of the fluid and
4) possibly on the temperature difference.
The convective heat transfer is therefore not constant or uniform over

the whole surface, although for all intensive purposes in building
physics it is often considered to be so.

Heat transfer Convection
Heat transfer-Radiation
All bodies emit radiation. Heat transfer via radiation occurs

when a body converts part of its internal energy (a result of
its temperature) into electromagnetic waves.
In buildings heat transfer due to radiation is most apparent
with transparent elements, where a large amount of the
impinging radiation coming from the sun is transmitted to
the building material.
Radiative heat transfer can also contribute to the cooling of
external surfaces through exposure to the night sky, wherin
these surfaces emit net radiation towards the clear sky, or
in the effect of discomfort associated with sitting next to hot
or cold surfaces (i.e. cold windows).
Heat transfer-Radiation

Thermal storage
The ability of a material to store energy is characterised by its
specific heat (cp, J/kgK). The specific heat of a material is
defined as the amount of heat necessary to raise a unit mass
of the material by one degree. The heat that is stored in the
mass of the material, m, for a temperature change, T, is
given by:
Technology
Energy Management Systems
Intelligent Building-Definitions
EIBG (European Intelligent Building Group):
One that incorporates the best available
concepts, materials, systems and technologies
integrating these to achieve a building which
meets or exceeds the performance
requirements of the building stakeholders, which
include the owners, managers and users, as
well as the local and global community.
Also from EIBG but more often quoted: One that
maximizes the efficiency of its occupants and
allows effective management of resource with
minimum life costs
IBI (The Intelligent Buildings Institute in
Washington DC, US): one that provides a
productive and cost-effective environment
through optimization of its four basic
components - structure, systems, services
and
management
and
the
interrelationships between them.

An Intelligent Building is one that:
Provides a productive and cost-effective built environment
through optimization of its four basic components - structure,
systems, services and management - and the
interrelationships between them. (focused on the benefit of
the Owners)Creating Desired indoor environment)
So as to maximize the efficiency of its occupants (focused on
the benefit of the Users) (Influence of creating desired indoor
environment on occupants)
And to allow effective management of resource with minimum
life costs (focused on the benefit of the Managers)
(Environmental and economic impact of creating desired
indoor environment)
Building Energy Management Systems-Definitions

Building Energy Management Systems aim to optimise
the use of energy in buildings by maintaining at the same
time the indoor environment under comfort conditions
Practically, a BEMS is a computerised system that
attempts to control all or some of the energy consuming
operations in a building:
HVAC systems (Heating Ventilating and Air Conditioning)
Lighting systems (natural and artificial)
Indoor climate
Building Energy Management Systems-Definitions

BEMS are now available with a wide range of building automation
facilities and in many installations BEMS have replaced hardwired
controls, with control strategies implemented in software
BEMS can combine many technologies:
Passive heating and cooling
Efficient daylight penetration by using suitable shading devices
Efficient appliances that reduce the electricity consumption
High efficiency windows (e.g. electrochromic)
Natural ventilation for indoor air quality and passive cooling
Improvements in building services for HVAC
Building Energy Management and Control
Building Energy Management SystemsHow much energy can be saved

Building Energy Management Systems- Hardware
The
basic architecture consists of:

Multiple programmable control panels, called Network Control
Units (NCUs) [each NCU manages an area of the building facility]
Operator WorkStations (OWSs) that communicate with each other
over a high speed communication network [normally a standard
PC]
This communication network is called Local Area Network (LAN)
NCU capacity can be increased with remote panels called
Network Expansion Units (NEUs)
The NCUs and NEUs directly control central plant equipment,
while the management of smaller air handlers, heat pumps,
lighting circuits and other building services systems is delegated
to a family of Application Specific Controllers (ASCs)

BEM Systems Software [1]
Direct Digital Control (DDC) is the major concept of Building

Automation System (BAS) in nowadays
DDC control e.g. loops for damper operation are available to
provide ventilation requirements or to utilize outdoor air for
cooling
Building energy management features are available inside a
modem BAS
e.g. the duty cycle program reduces electrical energy
consumed by the fan by cycling it on and off
The unoccupied period program, e.g night cycle program, is a
function that can reduce the indoor temperature of a space by
applying night ventilation

BEM Systems Software [2]
The enthalpy program monitors the temperature and relative
humidity or dew-point of the outdoor and return air and then
positions the outdoor air and return air dampers to use the air
source with the lowest total heat or least enthalpy
The load reset program controls heating and/or cooling to
maintain comfort conditions in the building while consuming a
minimum amount of energy
The zero- energy band program saves energy by avoiding
simultaneous heating and cooling of air delivered to spaces
The occupied-unoccupied lighting control is a time-based
program that schedules the on/off time of lights for a building or
zone to coincide with the occupancy schedules
BEM Systems Architecture [1]
General Architecture
Central Unit
Sensors
Actuators
General Architecture
Central Unit
Local
Controller
Sensors
Actuators
Local
Controller
Sensors
Actuators
Local
Controller
Sensors
Actuators
The structures of BEMS change with evolution of technologies and

products.
Early BEMS were centralized energy management systems and first
appeared in the 1970s, having been developed in the USA. The
central station was based on a minicomputer, which contained the
only computing power or "intelligence" in the system, with "dumb" or
unintelligent outstations which were boxes or cabinets for relays and
connections to sensors and actuators.
Since about 1980, with the rapid development of technologies, the
outstations became as powerful as the previous minicomputer, if not
more so.
Also, the outstations have gained considerably in processing power
giving them "intelligence".

Intelligent Buildings

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Intelligent Building

Higher levels of security and safety

Reduced system costs by sharing infrastructure

Increased complexity of the system

How can wireless technology support intelligent buildings?

Intelligent Building Technology

Energy used in buildings accounts for almost half

Intelligent Building Technology

With fossil fuels as the primary energy source, the

Intelligent Building Technology

Buildings are inherently linked to their usage and

The design of buildings in the mid-late twentieth century

Intelligent Building Technology

A more climate sensitive approach linked to the use of

Under almost all circumstances it is necessary at some point

Intelligent Building Technology

The purpose of energy management in buildings, and

Energy consumption in building is required for the

Indoor air quality

Intelligent Building Technology

Comfort is defined as the sensation of complete physical and

mean radiant temperature

Intelligent Building Technology

Intelligent Building Technology

Clothing: describes the occupants thermal insulation against

Intelligent Building Technology

Activity: The metabolic rate is the amount of energy produced

Intelligent Building Technology

Mean Radiant Temperature

Intelligent Building Technology

Although the four parameters of air temperature, radiant

Intelligent Building Technology

mean radiant temperature

heat stress, and

Intelligent Building Technology

The perceived need for both heating and cooling is to

Controversy exists as to what these standards of thermal

Intelligent Building Technology

The Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) is a widely accepted

This PMV is an index which predicts the mean value of

Intelligent Building Technology

Intelligent Building Technology

Intelligent Buildings Technology

Intelligent Buildings Technology

Intelligent Buildings Technology

Natural light is a fluctuating source of light. It depends on the hour of

Intelligent Buildings Technology

Intelligent Buildings Technology

Diffuse light from the sky,

Light Reflections from the

Intelligent Buildings Technology

The daylight factor is a measure of the daylight level at any position

Intelligent Buildings Technology

Intelligent Buildings Technology

If a predominately daylit appearance is required, then the daylight factor

Indoor air quality

Intelligent Buildings Technology

A conflict has always existed between adequate ventilation and energy

Intelligent Buildings Technology

Every building has a number of potential sources of indoor air contaminants.

Intelligent Buildings Technology

There are two types of ventilation: natural and mechanical.