Introduction 1&2 2015

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND
AEROSPACE ENGINEERING
NANYANG TECHNOLOGICAL
UNIVERSITY, SINGAPORE
MA4704 - Aeroelasticity
Part I Structural Vibrations, Static Aeroelasticity
and Unsteady Aerodynamics
A/Prof Lin Rongming
Part II Dynamic Aeroelasticity and Flutter
Prof Zhao Dan
Contact A/P Lin Rongming: Room N3.2-02-80,
Tel.: 6790 4728, E-mail: mrmlin@ntu.edu.sg
Consultations: Fridays 10 - 1pm
Course Website: http://edventure.ntu.edu.sg
Lectures 1 & 2 1/45
Introduction to Structural Dynamics and Aeroelasticity
Sunday, August 30, 2015

Assessments:
(1) Continual Assessment: 50%
Two (2) project assignments one for Part I
and another for Part II, each contributes 25%
towards overall final grade.
(2) Final Open-Book Exam: 50%
Text Book:
The lecture notes are developed based on
the book Introduction to Structural
Dynamics and Aeroelasticity, Dewey H.
Hodges and G. Alvin Pierce, Cambridge
University Press, 2002
Lectures 1 & 2 2/45

What is Aeroelasticity ?
Aeroelasticity is the study of the interactions of
inertial, structural and aerodynamic forces and
their effect on the structural and control
performances of aircraft, space vehicles, high
speed trains, etc.
am
i
Dy
n
Str
uc
ta
l
ic s
Lectures 1 & 2 3/45
Dynamic
Aeroelasticity
am
yn
Structural
Forces
tD
gh
Fli
cs
Inertial Forces
Static Aeroelasticity
Aerodynamic
Forces

Why Is Aeroelasticity Important ?

The interactions of these three type of forces can
lead to some major undesirable structural
phenomena:
Divergence (static aeroelasticity);
Flutter (dynamic aeroelasticity);
Limit Cycle Oscillations (nonlinear
dynamic aeroelasticity);
Vortex shedding, buffeting and galloping
(unsteady aerodynamics and aeroelasticity).
Lectures 1 & 2 4/45

Static Divergence - Wind Tunnel Test:
Wing deflection increases as airspeed increases until

failure, divergence speed is lower than flutter speed here.
Lectures 1 & 2 5/45

A6 Wing Flutter - Wind Tunnel Test:
Wing vibration increases quickly at certain airspeed.

Where does the wing vibration energy come from ??
Lectures 1 & 2 6/45

Limit Cycle Oscillations (LCOs):
Rectangular wing with pitch and plunge degrees of

freedom. Sustained oscillation from initial disturbances.
Lectures 1 & 2 7/45

These have occurred in well controlled lab

experiments, what about in practice?
PA30 Tail Flutter observed while in flight.

Lectures 1 & 2 8/45

What is the easiest way to break a gliders wings?
By flying it at its flutter speed !

Lectures 1 & 2 9/45

And they occur even on very expensive kit !
F-16 limit cycle oscillations observed while in flight.

Lectures 1 & 2 10/45 Introduction to Structural Dynamics and Aeroelasticity

How to avoid these phenomena in practice ?

These are usually carried out in practice to eliminate
possible aircraft aeroelastic problems:
Structural Dynamics Design (Resonances, Damping);
Aeroelastic Design (Divergence, Flutter,

Control Reversal);
Wind Tunnel Testing (Aeroelastic scaling);
Ground Vibration Testing (Modal analysis of

aircraft);
Flight Flutter Testing (demonstrate that flight

envelope is safe and is flutter free).

Wind Tunnel Testing:

Wind Tunnel Testing has
become an essential and
integral part of modern
aerospace design. Scaled or
actual models are tested to
evaluate their aerodynamic
performances.
1/4 Scale F-16 Flutter Model
F-22 Buffet Test Model

Ground Vibration Testing GVT:

GVT and
modal
analysis are
carried out
to establish
vibration
properties
and to
validate
design
calculation.
GVT of F-35 Aircraft
A340 GVT
Space Shuttle GVT

Flight Flutter Testing:

A380 Flight Flutter Testing:
Final Flight Flutter Testing is needed to clear the aircraft of

any flutter within the flight envelope before certification.

What are there in this course ?

Introduction to Aeroelastic Modeling;
Vibration Modeling of Continuous Aircraft Structures
-- Wing modeling, bending and torsional vibrations;
Vibration Measurement and Modal Analysis
-- To extract modal natural frequencies and modal
damping from vibration test data;
Modeling of Static Aeroelastic Phenomena
-- Divergence, Control Effectiveness, Control Reversal;
Unsteady Aerodynamics Modeling
-- To derive lift and moment for flutter analysis;
Modeling of Dynamic Aeroelastic Phenomena
-- Flutter, k-method, p-k method;
Practical Aspects of Aeroelasticity
-- Aeroelastic Design, Flight Flutter Testing.

A bit of History:
The first ever flutter incident occurred on the
Handley Page O/400 bomber in 1916 in UK.
A fuselage torsion mode was coupled (with very close
natural frequencies) with an anti-symmetric elevator
mode (the elevators were independently actuated).
The problem was
solved by coupling the
elevators through a
torsion tube to increase
the natural frequency of
the anti-symmetric
elevator mode.

A bit more of History:

Control surface flutter became
a frequent phenomenon during
World War I.
It was solved through trial and
error by placing a mass
balance around the control
surface hinge line.
wing
Balancing
mass
Hinge line
Aileron
The added mass increases the

rotational mass moment of
inertial and shifts the aileron
resonant frequency away from
flutter region.

Historical Examples:
Aircraft that experienced aeroelastic phenomena
Handley Page O/400 (elevators-fuselage)
Junkers JU90 (fluttered during flight flutter test)
P80, F100, F14 (transonic aileron buzz)
T46A (servo tab flutter)
F16, F18 (external stores LCO, buffeting)
F111 (external stores LCO nonlinear flutter)
F117, E-6 (vertical fin flutter)
Read Historical Development of Aircraft Flutter, I. E.
Garrick, W. H. Reed III, Journal of Aircraft, 18(11),
897-912, 1981

Aeroelastic Modeling:
Aircraft are very complex structures with many modes of
vibration and can exhibit very complex fluid-structure
interaction phenomena including divergence, flutter,
LCO (nonlinear flutter), buffeting etc.
The exact modeling of these aeroelastic behaviour of an
aircraft necessitates the coupled solution of:
-- The full structural vibration equations;
-- The full compressible Navier Stokes equations.
As this is very difficult, we begin with something simpler
a 2DOF pitch plunge airfoil. Such a simple model has
been shown to have captured most of the essential
behaviour of practical complex aeroelastic systems.

The 2DOF pitch plunge airfoil:

z
U
h h t
t
I , m
O
kT
k
c/2
h
A
Flexural axis A
Mass centre C
a negative A ahead of C
pitch degree of freedom, h plunge degree of freedom

a position of flexural axis, c chord length
k plunge spring stiffness, kT pitch spring stiffness

Structural Modeling:
There are always two aspects to each aeroelastic
modeling:
-- A Structural Model
-- An Aerodynamic Model
In some cases a control model is added to represent
the effects of actuators and other control elements.
To develop a structural model, Lagranges energy
method is often used. We use the method here to
derive equations of motion (EOMs) for the 2DOF pitch
plunge airfoil and leave the detailed discussion of the
method later.

Kinetic Energy dT :
x
dx
x
v
h
A
c/2
assumed to be small
v c / 2 a x h
1
2
dT w dx c / 2 a x h
2

Kinetic Energy T :
Upon integration over the whole chord length of the
airfoil, the total kinetic energy becomes,
1 2
1
T m h S h
I 2
2
2
where S and I are defined as,
S ma
1
2
2
I
mc ma IA
12

Potential Energy V :
The potential energy is simply the energy stored in the
two springs,
1
1
2
2
V kh
kT
2
Equations of Motion:
The EOMs can be conveniently obtained based on

Lagranges method, first define,
1 2
1
1
1
2
2
L T V m h S h
I k h kT 2
2
2
2
2
then,
d L
L
0,

dt h
h
d L
L
0

dt

Equations of Motion:
Upon substituting T and V into those 2 equations, the 2
EOMs can be established to be come,
mh S kh 0
I Sh kT 0
When written in matrix form, these become,
m S
S I
h
k 0

0
k
h
0

0

Aerodynamics Modeling:
The possible aerodynamic model to be used depends
on flow regime of the problem and the simplicity to be
sought.
In general, four flow regimes can be considered by
aeroelasticians:
-----
Incompressible
Subsonic
Transonic
Supersonic
For the moment and for this course, we will deal only
with incompressible modelling and that is adequate for
most applications.

Incompressible, Unsteady Aerodynamics:

Oscillating airfoils leave behind
them a strong vortex street. The
vorticity in the wake affects the
flow over the airfoil:
The instantaneous
aerodynamic forces depend not
only on the instantaneous
position and motion of the
airfoil but also on the position
and strength of the wake
vortices.
This means that instantaneous
aerodynamic forces depend not
only on the current position
and motion of the airfoil but on
all its motion history from the
beginning of the motion.

Examples of Wake:
Wake vortex street from a pitching airfoil.


Examples of Wake:
Wake vortex street from a plunging airfoil.


Quasi-steady Aerodynamics:
Quasi-steady aerodynamic models assume that there
are only four contributions to aerodynamic forces:
-- Horizontal airspeed U, at an angle of attack (t)
to airfoil;
-- Airfoil plunge speed, h t .
-- Normal component of pitch speed, t c / 2 a x .

-- Local velocity induced by vorticity around the airfoil.
In Quasi-steady modelling, inertial forces of the air
accelerating/decelerating around the airfoil are not
considered.

Lift and Moment:
L
M
A
c/2
The air moving around the airfoil will produce, based on

Quasi-steady model, a lift L and a moment M. The lift L
is defined positive upwards as a convention.

Lift and Moment Coefficients:

Full rigorous derivation of lift will be discussed later but a
simpler explanation is given here from thin airfoil theory.
The airfoil is uncambered but the pitch and plunge
motions cause an effective camber as shown.
When examining a fluid particle moving along the camber
line (assumed to be a streamline), its horizontal velocity
is very much the free stream velocity U while its vertical
velocity can be written as,
v y c / 2 a x h
Effective camber line
z z (x)
vx U
Hence, camber line
slope becomes,
P
x
vy
vx
x

vy
dz
dz / dt
c / 2 a x h
dx
dx / dt
vx
U
From thin airfoil theory, lift coefficient can then be
written as,
cl 2 A0 A1 / 2
where A0 and A1 are defined as,
1
A0
where
dz
d ,
dx
2
An
dz
cos n d
dx
c
1 cos
x
2

Substituting all these into the equation for the lift

coefficient and carrying out the integration, we have,
c
t
h t
cl t 2 t

a
U
4
U
This is the total of circulatory part of the lift acting on

the airfoil. There is another portion of the lift called noncirculatory lift acting on the airfoil, which will be
presented a bit later.
The moment coefficient can be accordingly derived
based on thin airfoil theory,
About leading edge:
About flexural axis:
cm,le cl / 4 A1 A2 / 4
cm, A cm,le c / 2 a cl / c

Circulatory Lift and Moment - Quasi-steady Model:

The coefficient A2 can be computed from the following,
2
A2
a c / 2 cos h
cos 2 d
U
After substituting all these into the lift coefficient and

moment coefficient and then using these coefficients to
derive the lift and moment, they become where b=c/2,
Lc 2 bU U h
a
(1)
4

1 a 2
1
c

M c
c U U h
a
c 3U
4
16
4 c
(2)

Added Inertial Mass Effect:

Apart from the circulatory lift and moment whose
coefficients have been obtained based on quasi-steady
aerodynamics, the air around the airfoil exerts another
type of force which is non-circulatory in nature.
The airfoil is forcing a mass of air around it to move
(with acceleration), the air reacts and this additional
force is known as the added inertial mass effect.
It can be shown later that this force is the effort required
to move a cylinder of air with mass b2 where b=c/2.
This force causes both lift and moment contributions.
Lnc b 2 U a h
(3)
M nc b 2 ah c / 4 a U a 2 b 2 / 8 (4)


Full Lift, Moment and Full Aeroelastic EOMs:

The full aerodynamic lift and moment become,
L b U a h 2 bU U h
a
4

M b ah c / 4 a U a 2 b 2 / 8
(5)
1 a 2
1
c

c U U h
a
c 3U
4
16
4 c
(6)
These are seen by the airfoil as external forces, as a

result, the complete EOM becomes,
m S
S I
h
k 0

0 kT

h
L

(7)

Full Aeroelastic EOMs:

Recall that the aerodynamic lift and moment are functions
of pitch and plunge motions and upon substituting the lift
and moment into (7), we have,
m
S
h
b 2

2
2
a (a b / 8)
1
(c / 4 a )
h

(c / 4 a) (a c / 4)(a c / 2)
S h

Uc
k 0 h
0 k
T
2 0
h
0
U c

0
0 ( c / 4 a )
1
(8)

Characteristics of the Full Aeroelastic EOMs:

1. The equations of motion are second order, linear,
ordinary differential equations;
2.Notice that the equations can be written in a more
general form,
2
[ [ ] b [B] ] q [ [C] Uc [D] ] q

[ [E] U 2c [F ] ] q 0
where [A] and [B] are structural and aerodynamic mass

matrices, [C] and [D] are structural and aerodynamic
damping matrices, and [E] and [F] are structural and
aerodynamic stiffness matrices. By comparing with (8),
these matrices can be determined for the 2DOF airfoil
([C]=[0] since no structural damping is considered in
this case).

Static Aeroelasticity:
We have now established the full equations of motion
for the pitch plunge airfoil based on quasi-steady
aerodynamics and we are to examine these in detail;
First, we will study the static equilibrium of the system;
Static means that all the velocities and accelerations
are zero;
The equations of motion in static case become,
h
0
U c

2
[kT U c c / 4 a ]
0
2

Aerodynamic Coupling:
Let us now apply a static moment M0 around the flexural
axis A, then the equilibrium equations become;
h
0
U c

2
[kT U c c / 4 a ]
M0
2
Upon solving these equations, we get,
M0
kT U 2c c / 4 a
U 2c M 0
k [kT U 2c c / 4 a ]
0

This phenomenon is called Aerodynamic Coupling:

A change in pitch angle causes a change in plunge.
This is logical since increased pitch leads to increased
lift, which in turns leads to a change in plunge.
However, if we apply a static force F0 on the flexural
axis in the direction of plunge, there will only be
change in plunge and no change in pitch. In this case,
there does not exist aerodynamic coupling:
h
F0
U 2c
2
[kT U c c / 4 a ]
0
F0
h
,
k

Static Divergence:
Look at the static pitch displacement in the case of an
applied static moment:
M0
kT U 2c c / 4 a
There is a possibility that for certain speed UD, the

denominator becomes zero and as a result, become
extremely large. UD is called the Divergence speed.
2
kT U D
c c / 4 a 0
UD
kT
c c / 4 a
Divergence will not occur if a -c/4, i.e., the flexural

axis is ahead of the aerodynamic centre, which in the
case of thin airfoil, is located at quarter chord.

What Was the Lecture ?

In this introductory lecture, we have sought to provide a
complete overview about Aeroelasticty course.
Following topics were explored briefly and will be further
examined in detail later in the course.
Practical significance of aeroelasticity;
2DOF pitch plunge airfoil model;
Structural modelling;
Aerodynamic modelling;
Full aeroelastic equations of motion;
Aerodynamic coupling;
Static divergence.

Introduction 1&amp;2 2015

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SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND

Introduction to Structural Dynamics and Aeroelasticity

Sunday, August 30, 2015

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND

Introduction to Structural Dynamics and Aeroelasticity

Sunday, August 30, 2015

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND

Lectures 1 & 2 3/45

Introduction to Structural Dynamics and Aeroelasticity

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND

Why Is Aeroelasticity Important ?

Introduction to Structural Dynamics and Aeroelasticity

Sunday, August 30, 2015

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND

Static Divergence - Wind Tunnel Test:

Wing deflection increases as airspeed increases until

Introduction to Structural Dynamics and Aeroelasticity

Sunday, August 30, 2015

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND

A6 Wing Flutter - Wind Tunnel Test:

Wing vibration increases quickly at certain airspeed.

Introduction to Structural Dynamics and Aeroelasticity

Sunday, August 30, 2015

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND

Limit Cycle Oscillations (LCOs):

Rectangular wing with pitch and plunge degrees of

Introduction to Structural Dynamics and Aeroelasticity

Sunday, August 30, 2015

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND

These have occurred in well controlled lab

PA30 Tail Flutter observed while in flight.

Introduction to Structural Dynamics and Aeroelasticity

Sunday, August 30, 2015

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND

What is the easiest way to break a gliders wings?

By flying it at its flutter speed !

Introduction to Structural Dynamics and Aeroelasticity

Sunday, August 30, 2015

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND

And they occur even on very expensive kit !

F-16 limit cycle oscillations observed while in flight.

Sunday, August 30, 2015

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND

How to avoid these phenomena in practice ?

Structural Dynamics Design (Resonances, Damping);

Aeroelastic Design (Divergence, Flutter,

Wind Tunnel Testing (Aeroelastic scaling);

Ground Vibration Testing (Modal analysis of

Flight Flutter Testing (demonstrate that flight

Lectures 1 & 2 11/45 Introduction to Structural Dynamics and Aeroelasticity

Sunday, August 30, 2015

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND

Wind Tunnel Testing:

1/4 Scale F-16 Flutter Model

F-22 Buffet Test Model

Lectures 1 & 2 12/45 Introduction to Structural Dynamics and Aeroelasticity

Sunday, August 30, 2015

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND

Ground Vibration Testing GVT:

GVT of F-35 Aircraft

Space Shuttle GVT

Lectures 1 & 2 13/45 Introduction to Structural Dynamics and Aeroelasticity

Sunday, August 30, 2015

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND

Introduction 1&2 2015

Introduction 1&2 2015