Ground Movements

The measurement of foundation and ground movements is

concerned with the accurate
Determination of settlements,
Lateral movements
Change of position,
Change of dimensions
Change in length of foundation elements

The most conventional survey techniques are used for the determination
of
Elevation
Change in Elevation
Determination of lateral displacement by offset measurement from a line
of sight
Determination of distance and distance change by tape measurement
between observation pillars
Determination of change of position by triangulation

Elevation determination
Survey accuracy depends upon the type of reference points and the datum
to which the measurements are referred.
For absolute movement determination it is essential that the datum
benchmark be located well away from the zone of ground movement.
A permanent bench mark is used.
Where this is not available a bench mark or a number of bench mark
depending on the size of the project are formed.
Degree of sophistication of benchmark depends on the accuracy required,
the ground and environmental conditions and the permanency of the
installation.

Rock benchmark installation

Benchmark may be used for direct settlement readings.

In this the steel casing is connected to a settlement plate and the
differential movement between the plate and the bench mark is recorded
by a dial gauge.

Settlement gauge and benchmark

Settlement points may be classified into two groups

Those for ground surface settlement
Those attached to foundation structures
The ground settlement device a block of concrete surrounding a
reinforcing bar.
Though the device is simple and cheap it is susceptible to damage from the
construction activity and frost heave.
This limitations may be overcome by isolation of the measuring reference
bar by means of concentric tube.
The more common approach is to install a pipe or rod in a small diameter
hole, the rod being isolated from the ground by means of casing. eg Borros
point

Borros point

Extension of the point is the settlement plate used with an anchor post.
The plate is placed on top of the compressible layer, and fill placed on top
up to the ground surface.
The anchor post is then installed.
The movement of the plate relative to the top of the anchor rod is
measured by dial gauge thus eliminating the need for a survey crew.

Settlement platform with anchor post

The reference points on foundation structures are either rigidly attached

to the structure by bolting or welding or special demountable points are
employed. Eg a pin and socket commonly used .
Comprises a steel or brass socket grouted into a hole in the side of the
foundations.
The reference pin screws into the socket.
When not in use the socket is protected with a cover plate.
The levelling staff is placed on top of the reference pin

Pin and socket for foundation settlement measurement

For survey of roads it is impossible to maintain the reference points

specially if they are projecting above the ground surface.
In such cases special reference head are used.
They consist of a steel tube about 25 mm diameter which is placed in the
ground so that the top end with the special fitting plug is about 20 mm
below ground surface.
The plug has a central hole about 15 mm deep into which an extension rod
about 150mm in length fits.
The top end of the extension rod is cone shaped

Heave measurement
The heave point are made from four 6mm thick steel fins welded
together to form a vane 90mm in diameter and 0.3 m in length.
A plate 19mm thick, welded to the top ends of the point and with a 12
mm diameter tapped hole in the centre aids installation.
To install a heave gauge a 100mm diameter hole is drilled to the
required depth .
The heave gauge is lowered on a string of drill rods and forced into the
bottom of the borehole until the top plate is flush with the bottom of
the borehole.
The drill rods are then removed and the hole backfilled with a red
bentonite slurry.
The bentonite is placed at a water content of about 900 % and coloured
with Erythrosine dye.
The bentonite protects the borehole from cave in and the red dye
facilitates location of boreholes while excavation is in progress.
By sounding through the bentonite with stainless steel flush jointed
rods of about 10mm diameter , the top plate is located and elevation is

Heave gauge

Lateral movement from offsets

By locating permanent targets at the two ends of a line of sight the line of
sight is defined.
When the movement reference points have been established either in the
ground or on the structure foundation.
The line of sight defined by the theodolite and the permanent foresight
target is dropped in turn onto a steel tape or scale held at right angles
across the line of sight and zeroed on the reference mark on top of the
reference point.
In some cases permanent scales are attached to the reference points.
Wherever possible the reference point should be set in line between the
stable end references

Tape measurement between observation points

Triangulation
Electronic distance measurement
Laser
Photogrammetric method of movement measurement

Single point settlement Gauge

There are many situations where it is not practicable to carry a vertical
reference rod through the ground surface eg vertical settlement of a point
beneath a road.
Terzaghi introduced a hose level manometer and this has lead to a number
of more accurate and more versatile instrument which rely on the
manometer principle .
All remote settlement gauges rely on the determination of the elevation of
one point with respect to a bench mark by optical leveling.
The elevation of other point is obtained by relative elevation addition to
the known elevation.
Thus the accuracy of measurement is controlled by the accuracy of optical
levelling as well as the factors common to the manometer system namely
temperature differential along with water filled tube and the presence of
air bubbles in the manometer tube.

Water manometer tube gauge

A measuring cell is buried in the fill and connected to a remote reading unit
comprising a drain tube and air tube connected to the cell and a vertical
scale alongside a stand pipe.
The cell is at the same elevation as the read out unit.
In use de aired water is pumped into the vertical standpipe which causes
overflow in the cell buried in the fill.
The overflow returns from the cell via the drain tube.
The elevation of the overflow level in the cell is then read on the scale
attached to the vertical standpipe.
The height of the standpipe must be sufficient to cover the elevation of
the cell unit and its anticipated settlement.

Water manometer tube gauge

Mercury settlement gauge

Nitrogen pressure is applied to the cell unit until an electrical contact
between the base of the cell and mercury is made .
The elevation of the contact is determined from the measured nitrogen
pressure with knowledge of the elevation of the mercury surface at the
read out unit

Mercury settlement gauge

Multipoint settlement gauges

The principal of the multipoint gauge is that several addition cells are
installed in the manometer tube.
The gauge consists of a series of interconnected water pots.
Each pot is a brass cylinder 28 mm i.d and sealed at top with a brass lid.
A flexible hose connects the bottom of the pots to water and top of the
pots to an air supply .
The pots are mounted on three foot screws for levelling purpose.
A hollow stainless steel float with conical shaped top bears on a lever which
actuates a displacement transducer.
Relative movement of the brass pots changes the elevation of the water
surface and hence the transducer readings.

Multi point settlement gauge

High Sensitivity Settlement Sensor

Settlement Monitoring System consists of a series of vessels containing
liquid level sensors interconnected by a liquid filled tube.
A reference vessel is positioned at a stable bench mark location with
additional vessels positioned at different locations at approximately the
same elevation.
Differential settlement or heave between any vessel and the reference
vessel results in an apparent rise or fall of the liquid level in that vessel.
This system is particularly suitable for critical situations where high
resolutions are required.
Elevation changes of as little as 0.02mm (0.001in.) are detectable.

Mercury settlement gauge can also be used as a multi point instrument.

Additional cells each with a separate electric contact and cable are
installed in the manometer tube.
Readings of the elevation are taken by increasing the nitrogen pressure to
lift the mercury column and break contact between the cell base and
mercury column in each cell in turn

Multi point mercury settlement gauge

Vertical tube settlement gauge.

All gauges rely on a string of telescopic tubes to which a series of plates are
attached.

The settlement of these plates are measured and hence average strain in the
ground can be determined.
In building research station electrical gauge rigid P.V.C telescopic tubing is
placed in the fill during construction.

The measurement points comprise 0.3m square steel plates placed around the
plastic tube at about 3m vertical interval.
The steel plates can move independent of the tube.
A probe which consists of a coil forming the active arm of a parallel
resonance bridge is lowered on the end of a graduated cable down the inside
of the plastic pipe.

When the coil is central in each steel plate a maximum imbalance is read .

Vertical tube settlement gauge

The cross arm type gauge is the oldest being developed by the U.S bureau
of reclamation .
A 38 mm pipe is attached to a short length of channel .
a spacer of 50mm pipe is carried up to the next channel section cross arm.
The cross arm ensures that the 38mm dia pipe moves together a distance
equal to the compression of the soil between the cross arms.
When each cross arms installed the elevation of the reference point on top
pipe section is determined by levelling.
Depths to the measuring point at the lower end of the 38 mm pipe are
sounded by a special torpedo.

Cross arm vertical settlement gauge

Full profile gauges

The principal of operation of these devices is that the cell unit is pulled
along a buried flexible pipe laid in a trench, usually horizontal and the
distance from the fixed measuring unit is measured by a tape.
Th removable cell unit is referred to as a torpedo.
The elevation of the torpedo may be made at any position within the pipe
thus giving a vertical profile of the pipe with respect to the fixed
measuring unit.
In the overflow type the torpedo consists of an overflow gauge.
With this set up an accuracy of 2.5 mm was reported at a dam site.
The set up was used to measure both vertical and horizontal movements
and comprised rigid p.v.c pipes laid in the fill to a fall of 1in 40 from the
core of the dam to the gauge house on the downstream face.
Steel plates with central holes which fits over the pipe were spaced at 51m
intervals and their horizontal movements were related to reference plate
fixed to the instrument house.

This was achieved by use of an induction coil which can be passed through
the plate.
The water level device as also pulled through the duct by the motor and
the elevation of the pipe at predetermined positions determined with
respect to the elevation of the instrument house.
In the full profile gauge described the torpedo consists of a strain gauge
pressure transducer.
With this instrument the pressure transducer measures the liquid head
between the torpedo and the free liquid surface.
The gauge is particularly useful for monitoring of vertical settlement
profiles beneath foundations on compressible soils

Settlement gauge

Settlement Cell
Slope Indicators settlement cells have three main components: a pressure
transducer, a liquid-filled tube, and a reservoir.
Settlement cells are available in pneumatic and VS versions.
The pressure transducer, with liquid-filled tube attached, is embedded in
fill.
The other end of the tube is terminated at the reservoir.
The reservoir should be located at a higher elevation on stable ground.
The tube acts as a column of liquid, and the transducer at the bottom of
the tube measures the pressure created by the height of the column.
The transducer settles with the surrounding soil, effectively increasing
the height of the column of liquid and the pressure on the transducer.
Settlement is calculated by finding the change in pressure and converting
it to feet or meters of liquid head.

Horizontal movement gauges

The measurement of lateral movement within a soil mass requires the

installation of devices such as telescoping tubes, tensioned wires and
transverse extensometers as well as the conventional surface monuments.

Telescoping tubes
The technique is also used for vertical movement recording and the
principle of operation is that a telescoping tube which has steel plates
attached at predetermined interval has an elevated torpedo passed
through it to locate the position of the plate with respect to on end.
The torpedo is pulled through either by a pulley and wire system or by a
special motor.

Tensioned wire devices

The tensioned wire devices consists of steel wires or cables attached to
anchor zones and conducted through guide pipes to a measuring point
where the movement of a point on a cable is observed relative to a fixed
reference e, the tension in the wire being constant.
The multiple point extensometer measures the relative displacement of
the wires which are fixed in the ground along the axis of a bore hole.
During installation each measuring wire is tensioned by spring cantilevers in
the measuring head.
As the ground adjacent to the borehole deforms, the distance between the
sensor head and fixed point changes resulting in positive or negative
cantilever deflections which are sensed by a manual or automatic
transducer.
This may be used for vertical as well as in inclined directions.

The interfels extensometer depends on a similar principle of operation but

either a tensioned wire or a rigid rod is used to measure relative movement
from one measuring point to another.
The rods are assembled on site to the required length and at the end of an
installation most parts of the extensometer can be recovered for use
elsewhere.
The measuring device is a special dial gauge which fits into an opening on
the sensing head and allows the plunger to bear on the end of the
protruding movement rod.
For remote reading the extensometer are equipped with electric measuring
transmitters. An alarm system can be built into the system to go off when
a pre set displacement occurs.

Other instruments used for horizontal movements

Transverse extensometers
Deflectometer
Strain meters
Surface Extensometers
Tape Extensometers
Borehole extensometer
Soil extensometer
Magnet extensometer
Inclinometers