Newtons, Fouriers and Ficks laws

(Chapters 1, 9, 17)

Implementations of momentum transfer,

heat transfer and mass transfer principles
Fluid mechanics
(momentum
transport due to
velocity
difference)
Momentu

Heat transfer
operation
(heat
transport due
to
temperature
difference)

(momentum balance,
min conduits,
flow
transfer
pumps
and
(conduction,
compressors,
convection,
boundary layer,
radiation)
particle separation by
Mass transfer
gravity and by
centrifugal forces, operation (mass
fixed bed, fluidised transport due to
bed, entrainment)

concentration
difference)
(distillation,
absorption,
extraction,
humidification)

Momentum
transport

heat
transport
Mass
transport

MOMENTUM TRANSPORT
velocity in fluid inside the pipe

Newtons
law on
viscosity

Momentum
transfer, where
faster molecules
will diffuse
across an area
below and impart
their kinetic
energy to slower
molecules

Boundary layer induces higher velocity gradient close to the inner

wall of the pipe. Higher velocity gradient corresponds to higher shear
stress where more dynamic pressure is converted to heat and

Smaller pipe
higher average
velocity for a
given volumetric
flowrate
Higher velocity
incurs higher
velocity gradient
near the pipe wall,
which consequently
increases pump
power and vice
versa

MASS
TRANSPORT of
ink in water
by diffusion
due to
concentration

MASS TRANSPORT
concentration in a distillation column

equilibrium curve

Vapour transfer

operating line

liquid transfer

The higher the difference between equilibrium curve and

operating line, the larger are loads of condenser and

The higher the reflux ratio R (ratio of reflux to distillate product) of the
distillation column, the higher is the concentration between equilibrium
curve and operating line. This incurs higher utility cost (steam cost). At
lower R, column becomes higher (capital cost higher) due to more plates
required; at higher reflux ratio, column diameter becomes bigger (capital
cost higher). There is an optimised R to get minimum total cost.

 temperature in heat recovery of heat exchangers

Larger hot
utility load
at larger T

Larger cold
utility load at
larger T

Heat recovery at larger T

Heat
transfer

Heat recovery at smaller T

Reduced temperature increased heat recovery (more heat from hot stream is
given to cold stream) reduced both hot and cold utilities and vice versa, but
increased area of heat transfer.

 temperature in heat transfer between natural

gas- refrigerant

W = Q (1- T0/T)

The lower temperature between natural gas cooling curve and refrigerant
cooling curve due to cascading and mixed refrigerant reduces the load of
compressors.

Momentum transport:
Newtons Law of Viscosity
In Fig. 1.1-1 we show a pair of large parallel plates,
each one with area A, separated by a distance Y. In
the space between them is a fluid-either a gas or a
liquid.
This system is initially at rest, but at time t = 0 the
lower plate is set in motion in the positive x direction
at a constant velocity V.
As time proceeds, the fluid gains momentum, and
ultimately the linear steady-state velocity profile
shown in the figure is established.

When the final state of steady motion has been

attained, a constant force F is required to maintain
the motion of the lower plate. Common sense
suggests that this force may be expressed as
follows:

F/A = V/Y
(1.1-1)
The force should be proportional to the area A and
to the velocity, and inversely proportional to the
distance between the plates.
The constant of proportionality is a property of the
fluid, defined to be the viscosity.

First we replace F/A by the symbol yx, which is the

force in the x direction on a unit area perpendicular to
the y direction. This is the force exerted by the fluid of
lesser y on the fluid of greater y to overcome friction
due to viscosity when fluid of lesser y moves.
Furthermore, we replace V/Y by -dvx/dy. Then, in
terms of these symbols, Eq. 1.1-1 becomes

(1.1-2)
yx = - dvx/dy
This equation, which states that the shearing force per
unit area is proportional to the negative of the velocity
gradient, is often called Newton's law of viscosity.

It has been found that the resistance to flow of all

gases and all liquids with molecular weight < about
5000 is described by Eq. 1.1-2, and such fluids are
referred to as Newtonian fluids.
Polymeric liquids, suspensions, pastes, slurries, and
other complex fluids are not described by Eq. 1.1-2
and are referred to as non-Newtonian fluids.

Heat transport:
Fouriers Law of Conduction
Consider a slab of solid material of area A located
between two large parallel plates a distance Y apart.
We imagine that initially (for time t < 0) the solid
material is at a temperature T0 throughout.
At t = 0 the lower plate is suddenly brought to a slightly
higher temperature T1 and maintained at that
temperature.
As time proceeds, the temperature profile in the slab
changes, and ultimately a linear steady-state
temperature distribution is attained (as shown in Fig.
9.1-1).

When this steady-state condition has been reached,

a constant rate of heat flow Q through the slab is
required to maintain the temperature difference T =
T1 T 0.
It is found then that for sufficiently small values of
T the following relation holds:
Q/A = k T/Y
(9.1-1)
That is, the rate of heat flow per unit area is
proportional to the temperature decrease over the
distance Y.
The constant of proportionality k is the thermal
conductivity of the slab.

Equation 9.1-1 is also valid if a liquid or gas is placed

between the two plates, provided that suitable
precautions are taken to eliminate convection and
radiation.
In subsequent chapters it is better to work with the above
equation in differential form. That is, we use the limiting
form of Eq. 9.1-1 as the slab thickness approaches zero.
The local rate of heat flow per unit area (heat flux) in the
positive y direction is designated by qy. In this notation
Eq. 9.1-1 becomes
qy = - k dT/dy (9.1-2)

This equation, which serves to define k, is the onedimensional form of Fourier's law of heat
conduction. It states that the heat flux by conduction
is proportional to the temperature gradient.
If the temperature varies in all three directions, then
we can write an equation like
qx = - k dT/dx, qy = - k dT/dy, qz = - k dT/dz
(9.1-3, 4, 5)

If each of these equations is multiplied by the

appropriate unit vector and the equations are then
added, we get
. q = - k T
(9.1-6)
which is the three-dimensional form of Fourier's law.
Eq. 9.1-2 for each of the coordinate directions.
This equation describes the molecular transport of
heat in isotropic media. By "isotropic" we mean that
the material has no preferred direction, so that heat
is conducted with the same thermal conductivity k in
all directions

Moleculer Mass Transport: Ficks

Law of Binary Diffusion
Consider a thin, horizontal, fused-silica plate of area
A and thickness Y. Suppose that initially (for time t <
0) both horizontal surfaces of the plate are in
contact with air, which we regard as completely
insoluble in silica.
At time t = 0, the air below the plate is suddenly
replaced by pure helium, which is appreciably
soluble in silica.
The helium slowly penetrates into the plate by virtue
of its molecular motion and ultimately appears in the
gas above.

Fig. 17.1-1. Build-up to the

steady-state concentration
profile for the diffusion of
helium (substance A) through
fused silica (substance B).
The symbol A stands for the
mass fraction of helium, and
A0 is the solubility of helium
in fused silica, expressed as
the mass fraction. See Figs.
1.1-1 and 9.1-1 for the
analogous momentum and
heat transport situations.

In this system, we will call helium "species A" and

silica "species B"
The concentrations will be given by the "mass
fractions" A and B.
The mass fraction A is the mass of helium divided
by the mass of helium plus silica in a given
microscopic volume element.
The mass fraction B is defined analogously.

For time t < 0, the mass fraction of helium, A, is

everywhere equal to zero.
For time t > 0, at the lower surface, y = 0, the mass
fraction of helium is equal to A0. This latter quantity
is the solubility of helium in silica, expressed as
mass fraction, just inside the solid.
As time proceeds the mass fraction profile develops,
with A = A0 at the bottom surface of the plate and
A = 0 at the top surface of the plate.
As indicated in Fig. 17.1-1, the profile tends toward
a straight line with increasing t.

This molecular transport of one substance relative to

another is known as diffusion (also known as mass
diffusion, concentration diffusion, or ordinary
diffusion).
We thus have the situation represented in Fig. 17.11; this process is analogous to those described in
Fig. 1.1-1 and Fig. 9.1-1 where viscosity and
thermal conductivity were defined.
defined

At steady state, it is found that the mass flow Ay of

helium in the positive y direction can be described to
a very good approximation by
.

That is, the mass flow rate of helium per unit area (or
mass flux) is proportional to the mass fraction
difference divided by the plate thickness.
Here is the density of the silica-helium system, and
the proportionality factor DAB is the diffusivity of the
silica-helium system.

We now rewrite Eq. 17.1-1 for a differential element

within the slab:
.

Here Ay/A has been replaced by jAy, the molecular

mass flux of helium in the positive y direction.
Note that the first index, A, designates the chemical
species (in this case, helium), and the second index
indicates the direction in which diffusive transport is
taking place (in this case, the y direction).

Equation 17.1-2 is the one-dimensional form of

Fick's first law of diffusion. It is valid for any binary
solid, liquid, or gas solution, provided that jAy is
defined as the mass flux relative to the mixture
velocity vy.
For the system examined in Fig. 17.1-1, the helium
is moving rather slowly and its concentration is very
small, so that vy 0 during the diffusion process.

In general, for a binary mixture

.
Thus v is an average in which the species velocities,
vA and vB, are weighted according to the mass
fractions. This kind of velocity is referred to as the
mass average velocity.
The species velocity vA is not the instantaneous
molecular velocity of a molecule of A, but rather the
arithmetic average of the velocities of all the
molecules of A within a small volume element.
The mass flux jAy is then defined, in general, as

Mass flux of A relative to

total mass flux

The mass flux of B is defined analogously.

As the two chemical species interdiffuse there is,
locally, a shifting of the center of mass in the y
direction if the molecular weights of A and B differ.
The mass fluxes jAy and jBy are so defined that jAy +
jBy = 0. In other words, the fluxes jAy and jBy are
measured with respect to the motion of the center of
mass (motion of total mass, vy).
If we write equations similar to Eq. 17.1-2 for the x
and z directions and then combine all three
equations, we get the vector form of Fick's law:

.
A similar relation can be written for species B:
.

It is shown in Example 17.1-2 that DAB = DBA.. Thus

for the pair A-B, there is just one diffusivity; in
general it will be a function of pressure, temperature,
and composition.

The mass diffusivity DAB, the thermal diffusivity =

k/(Cp), and the momentum diffusivity (kinematic
viscosity) = / all have dimensions of (length2I
time). The ratios of these three quantities are
therefore dimensionless groups:

These dimensionless groups of fluid properties play

a prominent role in dimensionless equations for
systems in which competing transport processes
occur

In Tables 17.1-1, 2, 3, and 4 some values of DAB in

cm2/s are given for a few gas, liquid, solid, and
polymeric systems. These values can be converted
easily to m2/s by multiplication by 10-4
Diffusivities of gases at low density are almost
independent of A, increase with temperature, and
vary inversely with pressure.
Liquid and solid diffusivities are strongly
concentration-dependent and generally increase
with temperature.