Chapter 3: The Human Body A

Nutrition Perspective

Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter the student will be able to:
identify the function of the cellular components:
define tissue, organ, and organ system.
list some characteristics of the 12 organ systems and outline a role
for each related to nutrition.
understand the role of genetic background in the development of
nutrition-related diseases.
outline the overall processes of digestion and absorption, including
the roles played by the organs of the gastrointestinal tract and the
related accessory organs.
become familiar with some specific enzymes and hormones that act
in digestion of the various nutrient groups.
identify the major nutrition-related gastrointestinal health problems
and typical approaches to treatment.

Human Physiology

Trillions of cells.
Join together to form tissues.
Tissues combine to form organs.
Organs form systems (e.g., digestive).
Common purpose.

Body tissues are continually turned over.

Continual degradation/synthesis
Requires energy, adenosine triphosphate
Requires nutrients in healthful diet

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The cell structure and function

The basic structural
and functional
component of life.
Many different types
of cells with different
roles.
Subcellular
specialization.
Organelles

Cell (plasma) membrane

Separates cell interior from exterior.
Double layered of lipid, CHO, and protein.
Hydrophilic and hydrophobic ends.

Controls passage of substances

Contains receptors for hormones and protein
markers communication.
Glycoproteins and glycolipids .
Contains cholesterol.

Cell structure
Cytoplasm
Fluid material within the cell (excluding the nucleus).
Site of anaerobic metabolism.
Mitochondria
Major site for aerobic energy production.
Present in all cells (except RBC).
Synthesis of other components, nonessential amino acids.
Nucleus
Double membrane.
Contains genetic material DNA.
Directs protein synthesis and cell division.

Cell structure
Endoplasmic reticulum - communication network
Rough endoplasmic reticulum contains ribosomes, protein synthesis
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum - fat synthesis, detoxification, calcium
storage.
The Golgi complex
Protein export system.
Help forms other cell organelles.
Lysosomes
Cell degradation system.
Sacs full of enzymes: suicide bags
Peroxisomes
Detoxification.
Contain catalase.
Alcohol metabolism.

Organization of the body

Groups of similar cells work together on a specialized
task tissue.
Four primary tissue types
Epithelial
lines the body surfaces, secrete, absorb and excrete.
Connective
holds structure together, stores fat and produces RBC.
Muscle
for movement
Nervous
Brain, CNS - communication
These tissues organs organ systems.

Circulatory system
Cardiovascular system

Heart and blood vessels

The heart is a muscular pump.
Blood leaves heart via arteries.
Exchange of nutrients occurs in capillaries
Blood returns to the heart via the veins.

Lymphatic system
Lymphatic vessels
Lymph tissues.

Cardiovascular system
Blood
Plasma
Cells

Pulmonary circuit
Systemic circuit

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Blood Circulation

Portal circulation in the gastrointestinal tract

Absorbed water and nutrients portal
circulation.
Hepatic portal vein leads directly to the
liver.

Lymphatic system
One way network that moves lymph (clear fluid)
which by muscular action.
Similar to blood but contains no platelets or
RBCs.
Lymph empties into major veins.
Important role in the defense of the body against
pathogens.
Carries products of fat digestion and absorption.

Nervous System

Regulatory system.
Detects sensations, controls
movement and controls
intellectual and physiological
functions.
Carries out appropriate
response.

Sensory receptors.
Nerves.
Central Nervous System
Brain and the spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System
Branches out to organs

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A Neuron

The structural and functional

unit of the nervous system
NEURON.
Elongated and highly
branched.
100 billion neurons.
Respond to electrical and
chemical signals and conduct
electrical impulses (changes
Na and K permeability).
Neurotransmitters carry
signals across synapses or
neuromuscular junction.
Many nutrients are required for
effective functioning of the
nervous system.

Endocrine System
Secretes regulatory
substances (hormones)
Desire for homeostasis
Target cells with
receptor proteins
Message to the DNA
directly
Use of a second
messenger

Immune System
Defense against infection.
Sensitive indicator of the bodys nutritional status
Skin
Continuous barrier
A variety of nutrients contribute to skin health

Intestinal cells
Produce immunoglobulins
A variety of nutrients contribute to good intestinal health.

White blood cells.

Phagocytes
Cell mediated immunity.
Complement.
Interferons

Nonspecific Immunity

Barriers
Mucous membrane
Mucus traps invaders
Acid in the stomach
Interferons
stimulate the synthesis
of antiviral proteins

Swelling and fever

Specific Immunity
Directed at specific molecules

Antibody-medicated immunity
Antigens and antibodies interaction
Immunoglobulins (B lymphocytes and antibodies).
Complement proteins.

Constant resynthesis of WBCs requires

nutrients:
Iron
Copper
Protein and vitamins

Digestive System
Six separate organs.
Digestion and absorption into bloodstream.
Long tube from mouth to anus
Epithelium lines the lumen
Submucosal layer
Muscularis

Motility.
Secretion.
Excretes waste.
Nutrient production.

Autonomic control

The mouth
Mastication reduces particle size.
Tongue
Taste receptors sweet, sour, salty, bitter.
Enzymes to help breakdown fatty acids

Saliva
Enzymes to help breakdown simple sugars
Mucus to lubricate the food for easier swallowing
Lysozyme to kill bacteria

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The swallowing process

From the mouth food
passes to the
esophagus.
Connects the pharynx
to the stomach.

Esophagus
Increase in muscle
action peristalsis.
Forces food toward
stomach.

The stomach
Large storage tank.
Capacity of ~4 cups.
Holds food for 2-4 hours

Lower esophageal sphincter and pyloric

sphincter regulate input and outflow.
Secretion of acid and enzymes aids digestion.
Also secretes intrinsic factor.
Result in the formation of chyme
Mucus layer prevents autodigestion

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Physiology of the stomach

Production of stomach acid

Stimulated by
Gastrin
Stomach distention
Histamine
Thoughts of food (nerve input)
Food itself
Prevents autodigestion
Stop secretion when pH is ~2
Thick mucus layer

Stomach acid
Destroys activity of protein
Converts pepsinogen to pepsin
Partially digests dietary protein

The small intestine

Chyme from stomach enters the small intestine.

Total length = 10 feet
Duodenum
~10 inches in length
Primary site of digestion

Jejunum
~4 feet in length
Some digestion

Ileum
~5 feet in length
Little digestion

The wall is folded

Villi projections are located on the folds
Absorptive cells (enterocytes) are located on the villi
Microvilli are located on the villi
Increases intestinal surface area 600 x
Peristalsis continues.

Intestinal mucosa
Absorptive cells constantly replaced Produced in crypts
Migration and maturation from the crypts to the tips of
the villi
Degradation of cells at the tips of the villi by digestive
enzymes
Newly formed cells constantly migrate to replace dying
ones (< 6 days)
High turnover causes the cells to deteriorate during
nutrient deficiency.
Materials from old cells can be reused.

The small intestine

Absorption by

Passive diffusion
Active transport.
Pinocytosis
Phagocytosis

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The small intestine

Movement Along the Intestine

Peristalsis
A ring of contraction propelling material along
the GI tract

Segmentation
A back-and-forth action that breaks apart food

Mass movement
Peristaltic wave that contracts over a large
area of the large intestine to help eliminate
waste

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Site of absorption

The Large Intestine

The contents of the small intestine enter the large intestine.

Only a small proportion of nutrients remain.
Physiological differences between the large and small intestine.
~3 1/2 feet in length.
Cecum, ascending, transverse, descending and sigmoid.
Little digestion occurs mucus production.
Absorption of water, some minerals, vitamins.
Bacterial population.
Formation of feces for elimination some fluid remains.
Indigestible food stuff dietary fiber, tough connective tissue.

Accessory organs
Pancreas, liver and gallbladder
Do not participate directly in
digestion.
Ducts from pancreas and
gallbladder enter small intestine
Pancreas
Produces glucagon and insulin
Secretes bicarbonate and digestive
enzymes

Liver
Nutrients are absorbed into the
portal vein and pass to the liver
Hepatic veins release nutrients to
the general circulation
Production and storage of bile
Enterohepatic circulation.
Detoxification

Urinary system

Kidney
Ureter
Bladder
Urethra

The kidney
Regulate the composition of blood and interstitial
fluid
Filtration of blood
Remove waste from the body and the formation
of urine
Controls blood volume and pressure
Maintains the pH of the blood: acid base
balance.
Produce active form of vitamin D.
Some gluconeogenic activity.

Storage capabilities
The human body must maintain reserves of
nutrients.
These reserves can be utilized when nutrient
needs are not met.

Storage capacity varies between nutrients.

Fat stored in adipose tissue.
CHO stored in muscle and liver short term.
Vitamins and minerals can be stored in the liver

What happens when the

digestive processes go awry?

Ulcers
Helicobacter pylori
Heavy use of aspirin
Excessive acid production
in the stomach
Symptoms
Pain 2 hours after eating

Treatment

Antibiotics
Antacid
Antisecretory drugs
Not milk!

Perforation is a major
concern

Heartburn
Affects 50% adults in U.S.
Gastroesophageal reflux
disease
Gnawing pain in the upper
chest
Acid from the stomach to
the esophagus
Treatment

Smaller meals
Less fatty meals
Stop smoking
Do not lie down after eating
Avoid offending foods

Constipation
Slow movement of fecal matter
Increase fluid reabsorption; hardening of the feces
Causes:
Result from ignoring normal urge
Antacids, calcium and iron supplements

Treatment
Plenty of dietary fiber and fluids stimulate peristalsis
Laxatives
Irritate SI muscle or draw water into the intestine

Hemorrhoids
Piles
Swollen veins of the rectum and anus
Causes:
Added stress and pressure to the vessels

Treatment
Check with physician
Warm compresses to reduce pain
Adequate fiber and fluid

Irritable Bowl Syndrome

Harmless.
Cramps, gassiness and bloating.
Visible abdominal distension.
Increased stool frequency with onset of pain.
More common in women.
No cure
Eliminate specific foods
Low fat, more frequent meals.
High fiber foods.