3.1 Safety

CHAPTER 3
PROCESS DESIGN AND SAFETY

3.1 Safety
3.2 Case study on process design and safety
3.3 Chemistry and separations
3.4 Unit ratio material balance
3.5 Detailed flow sheet
Chemical Engineering Design
Course Outcome
Ability to explain and identify process design and safety.
3.1 SAFETY
2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

Towler & Sinnott Chemical Engineering Design only. Do not copy
Safety
The safe design and operation of
facilities is of paramount
importance to every company that
is involved in the manufacture of
fuels, chemicals and
pharmaceuticals

Safety & Environment

Processes must meet acceptable safety and environmental
performance standards because:
It is required by law
The costs (human, social, economic) of non-compliance

can be catastrophic
Lax attitudes are reflected in insurance premiums, stock

prices
Moral and ethical obligations

Major Chemical Plant Safety Legislation

The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA); 29 U.S.C.
651 et seq. (1970)
Employers must provide a place of employment free from recognized

hazards to safety and health, such as exposure to toxic chemicals,
excessive noise levels, mechanical dangers, heat or cold stress, or
unsanitary conditions.
The Emergency Planning & Community Right-To-Know Act

(EPCRA); 42 U.S.C. 11011 et seq. (1986)
To help local communities protect public health, safety, and the environment
from chemical hazards.
The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA); 15 U.S.C. s/s 2601

et seq. (1976)
Allows EPA to track industrial chemicals and ban their manufacture or import

Chemical Plant Hazards

To design a safe process or product we need to
understand and mitigate the associated hazards
Materials hazards
Toxicity
Flammability
Incompatibility (corrosivity and reactivity)
Process hazards
Overpressure
Explosions
Loss of containment
Noise

Materials Hazards

Materials Hazards: Toxicity

Almost every chemical is toxic if you get enough of it
Chemical plants tend to have large enough amounts to cause
serious concern for workers and local residents
Process design needs to consider
Elimination or substitution of the most hazardous compounds

Prevention of releases
Containment
Disposal (via effective collection or vent systems)
Ventilation
Emergency procedures

Toxicity Definitions
Acute Effects
Symptoms develop rapidly (e.g. burns to skin after direct contact)
Normally the result of short-term exposures
Chronic Effects
Symptoms develop over a long period of time (e.g. cancer)
Often but not always the result of long-term exposure
Chronic conditions usually persist or recur frequently
LD50
Lethal dose at which 50% of test animals are killed
Usually expressed in mg/kg body mass
Indicates acute effects only
Threshold Limit Value (TLV) or Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL)

Concentration that it is believed the average worker can safely be exposed to for
40 hr work week
Recommended PEL values are published by OSHA
http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/healthguidelines/
Recommended TLV values are provided by the American Conference of
Government Industrial Hygienists http://www.acgih.org/home.htm

Toxicity Data
Examples:
Compound
Carbon monoxide
Carbon disulfide
Chlorine
Chlorine dioxide
Chloroform
Cyclohexane
Dioxane
Ethylbenzene
Formic acid
Furfural
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide
Isopropyl alcohol
Toluene
Xylene
PEL (ppm)
LD50 (mg/kg)
50
20
1
0.1
50
300
100
100
5
5
5
10
400
100
100
1807
3188
239
292
1188
4200
3500
1100
260
4701
3.7
5045
5000
4300
Source: OSHA
Ethanol LD50 = 3450 (oral, mouse) 7060 (oral, rat) 1440 (intravenous, rat)

Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA)

TSCA (15 U.S.C. s/s 2601 et seq., 1976) is USEPAs version of the Food
and Drug Act.
Allows EPA to regulate the 75,000 chemical substances used in industry
(including confidential materials)
TSCA requires extensive review before approval is given by USEPA to
manufacture, import and sell a new (i.e., never before made) chemical in
the USA.
Under TSCA, USEPA can ban or restrict the import, manufacture and use
of any chemical
Under TSCA, anyone has a right and obligation to report information
about new or alleged health/environmental effects caused by a chemical.
Section 5 of TSCA requires submitting a pre-manufacture

notice (PMN) to EPA 90 days before manufacturing or
importing any new chemical
Electronic version of PMN form can be downloaded from EPA

https://cdx.epa.gov/ssl/pmn/download.asp

Materials Hazards: Flammability

A fire requires three things:
A sufficient amount of fuel
A sufficient amount of oxidant
A source of ignition (but not always - see autoignition)
Possible ignition sources include

Electrical equipment such as motors, actuators
Usually specified as flame-proof or non-sparking when fuels are present
Open flames from furnaces, incinerators & flare stacks

Static electricity
From any flow, hence pipes, vessels & flanges are always grounded
Miscellaneous sources
Matches, lighters & mobile phones are usually banned

Flammability Definitions
Flash point
The lowest temperature at which the material will ignite from an open
flame
Function of vapor pressure and flammability limits
Autoignition temperature
Temperature at which the substance ignites in air spontaneously
Indicates maximum temperature the material can be heated to in air,
e.g., in drying
Flammability limits
Highest and lowest concentrations in air at normal temperature and
pressure (ntp) at which a flame will propagate through the mixture
Vary widely for different materials
Data can be found in Materials Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) or safety

handbooks, e.g.:
Lewis, R.J., Saxs Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 10 th Edn., John Wiley & Sons
Inc., New York, 1999.
($595 for 3 volumes, so check the library!)

Flame Suppression
Flame arrestors (flame traps) are specified on vent lines of equipment

that contains flammable materials to prevent a flame from
propagating back from the vent
Various proprietary designs are available
Basic principle:
Provide high metal surface area to act as a sink for heat and free radicals
Enardo detonation
flame arrestors
Source: Enardo LLC
www.Enardo.com

Materials Hazards: Incompatibility

Mixtures of incompatible materials may undergo violent
reaction (exothermic, temperature runaway)
Acids and bases

Acids and metals
Fuels and oxidants
Free radical initiators and epoxides, peroxides, unsaturates,
Incompatibility with materials of construction can lead to

loss of containment
Corrosion of vessels, internals, instruments
Softening of gaskets, seals, linings
Materials incompatibility is one of the major sources of

incidents
Materials Safety Data Sheets
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs)

must be provided to employees and
customers by law in the U.S.A. (OSHA
Hazard Communication Standard 29 CFR Part
1910.1200)

MSDS contains the information needed

to begin analyzing materials and
process hazards
Most MSDSs contain a disclaimer

stating that the user should also make
their own evaluation of compatibility and
fitness for use
Materials Safety Data Sheet

Example: Ethylene Dichloride
(Source: Fisher Scientific)
Material Safety Data Sheet

1,2-Dichloroethane, extra dry, water <50 ppm
ACC# 00220
Whats in an
MSDS?
Section 1 - Chemical Product and Company Identification

MSDS Name: 1,2-Dichloroethane, extra dry, water <50 ppm
Catalog Numbers: AC326840000, AC326840010, AC326841000, AC326842500
Synonyms: Ethylene dichloride; 1,2-Ethylene dichloride; Glycol dichloride; EDC;
sym-Dichloroethane; 1,2-Dichloroethane; Ethylene chloride.
Company Identification:
Acros Organics N.V.
One Reagent Lane
Fair Lawn, NJ 07410
For information in North America, call: 800-ACROS-01
For emergencies in the US, call CHEMTREC: 800-424-9300
Section 2 - Composition, Information on Ingredients
CAS#
107-06-2
Chemical Name
1,2-Dichloroethane
Percent
EINECS/ELINCS
>99.9
203-458-1
Chemical
name
Synonyms
Manufacturer
contact info
Composition
Hazard Symbols: T F
Risk Phrases: 11 22 36/37/38 45

Section 3 - Hazards Identification
EMERGENCY OVERVIEW
Appearance: colorless liquid. Flash Point: 56 deg F. Warning! Flammable liquid
and vapor. May cause central nervous system depression. May cause liver and
kidney damage. May cause cancer based on animal studies. Causes eye and skin
irritation. Causes respiratory tract irritation. Irritant. May be harmful if swallowed.
Target Organs: Central nervous system, liver, eyes, skin.
Potential Health Effects
Eye: Causes eye irritation. Vapors may cause eye irritation. May cause chemical
conjunctivitis and corneal damage.
Skin: Causes skin irritation. May be absorbed through the skin. May cause irritation
and dermatitis. May cause cyanosis of the extremities.
Ingestion: May cause central nervous system depression, kidney damage, and liver
damage. May cause gastrointestinal irritation with nausea, vomiting and diarrhea.
May cause effects similar to those for inhalation exposure. May be harmful if
swallowed.
Inhalation: Inhalation of high concentrations may cause central nervous system
effects characterized by nausea, headache, dizziness, unconsciousness and coma.
Causes respiratory tract irritation. May cause liver and kidney damage. Aspiration
may lead to pulmonary edema. Vapors may cause dizziness or suffocation. Can
produce delayed pulmonary edema. Exposure to high concentrations may produce
narcosis, nausea and loss of consciousness. May cause burning sensation in the
chest.
Chronic: Possible cancer hazard based on tests with laboratory animals. Prolonged
or repeated skin contact may cause dermatitis. Prolonged or repeated eye contact
may cause conjunctivitis. May cause liver and kidney damage. Effects may be
delayed.

Summary of
major hazards

Section 4 - First Aid Measures
Eyes: Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes,
occasionally lifting the upper and lower eyelids. Get medical aid.
Skin: Get medical aid. Flush skin with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes while
removing contaminated clothing and shoes. Wash clothing before reuse.
Ingestion: Never give anything by mouth to an unconscious person. Get medical
aid. Do NOT induce vomiting. If conscious and alert, rinse mouth and drink 2-4
cupfuls of milk or water.
Inhalation: Remove from exposure and move to fresh air immediately. If not
breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing is difficult, give oxygen. Get medical
aid. Do NOT use mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.
Notes to Physician: Treat symptomatically and supportively.


Section 5 - Fire Fighting Measures
General Information: As in any fire, wear a self-contained breathing apparatus in
pressure-demand, MSHA/NIOSH (approved or equivalent), and full protective gear.
Vapors may form an explosive mixture with air. During a fire, irritating and highly
toxic gases may be generated by thermal decomposition or combustion. Use water
spray to keep fire-exposed containers cool. Flammable liquid and vapor. Approach
fire from upwind to avoid hazardous vapors and toxic decomposition products.
Vapors are heavier than air and may travel to a source of ignition and flash back.
Vapors can spread along the ground and collect in low or confined areas.
Extinguishing Media: For small fires, use dry chemical, carbon dioxide, water spray
or alcohol-resistant foam. For large fires, use water spray, fog, or alcohol-resistant
foam. Water may be ineffective. Do NOT use straight streams of water.
Flash Point: 56e deg F ( 13.33 deg C)
Autoignition Temperature: 775 deg F ( 412.78 deg C)
Explosion Limits, Lower:6.2%
Upper: 15.9%
NFPA Rating: (estimated) Health: 2; Flammability: 3; Instability: 0

Flammability
data
NFPA ratings

Section 6 - Accidental Release Measures
General Information: Use proper personal protective equipment as indicated in
Section 8.
Spills/Leaks: Absorb spill with inert material (e.g. vermiculite, sand or earth), then
place in suitable container. Avoid runoff into storm sewers and ditches which lead to
waterways. Clean up spills immediately, observing precautions in the Protective
Equipment section. Remove all sources of ignition. Use a spark-proof tool. Provide
ventilation. A vapor suppressing foam may be used to reduce vapors.
Section 7 - Handling and Storage

Handling: Wash thoroughly after handling. Remove contaminated clothing and wash
before reuse. Ground and bond containers when transferring material. Use sparkproof tools and explosion proof equipment. Avoid contact with eyes, skin, and
clothing. Empty containers retain product residue, (liquid and/or vapor), and can be
dangerous. Keep container tightly closed. Do not pressurize, cut, weld, braze, solder,
drill, grind, or expose empty containers to heat, sparks or open flames. Use only with
adequate ventilation. Keep away from heat, sparks and flame. Avoid breathing vapor
or mist.
Storage: Keep away from heat, sparks, and flame. Keep away from sources of
ignition. Store in a tightly closed container. Keep from contact with oxidizing
materials. Store in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area away from incompatible
substances. Flammables-area. Storage under a nitrogen blanket has been
recommended.


Section 8 - Exposure Controls, Personal Protection
Engineering Controls: Facilities storing or utilizing this material should be equipped

with an eyewash facility and a safety shower. Use adequate general or local
explosion-proof ventilation to keep airborne levels to acceptable levels.
Exposure Limits
Chemical Name
1,2-Dichloroethane
ACGIH
10 ppm TWA
NIOSH
OSHA - Final PELs
1 ppm TWA; 4 mg/m3

TWA 50 ppm IDLH
50 ppm TWA; 100

ppm Ceiling
OSHA Vacated PELs: 1,2-Dichloroethane: 1 ppm TWA; 4 mg/m3 TWA

Personal Protective Equipment
Eyes: Wear chemical goggles.
Skin: Wear appropriate protective gloves to prevent skin exposure.
Clothing: Wear appropriate protective clothing to prevent skin exposure.
Respirators: A respiratory protection program that meets OSHA's 29 CFR 1910.134
and ANSI Z88.2 requirements or European Standard EN 149 must be followed
whenever workplace conditions warrant a respirator's use.

OSHA PEL
data
Required PPE

Section 9 - Physical and Chemical Properties
Physical State: Liquid
Appearance: colorless
Odor: chloroform-like
pH: Not available.
Vapor Pressure: 100 mm Hg @29 deg C
Vapor Density: 3.4 (Air=1)
Evaporation Rate:6.5 (Butyl acetate=1)
Viscosity: Not available.
Boiling Point: 81-85 deg C
Freezing/Melting Point:-35 deg C
Decomposition Temperature:Not available.
Solubility: Insoluble.
Specific Gravity/Density:1.25 (Water=1)
Molecular Formula:C2H4Cl2
Molecular Weight:98.96


Section 10 - Stability and Reactivity

Chemical Stability: Stable at room temperature in closed containers under normal
storage and handling conditions.
Conditions to Avoid: Light, ignition sources, excess heat, electrical sparks.
Incompatibilities with Other Materials: Aluminum, bases, alkali metals, ketones,
organic peroxides, nitric acid, strong oxidizing agents, strong reducing agents, liquid
ammonia, amines.
Hazardous Decomposition Products: Hydrogen chloride, phosgene, carbon
monoxide, irritating and toxic fumes and gases, carbon dioxide.
Hazardous Polymerization: Has not been reported.

Known
incompatible
materials

Section 11 - Toxicological Information
RTECS#:
CAS# 107-06-2: KI0525000
LD50/LC50:
CAS# 107-06-2:
Draize test, rabbit, eye: 63 mg Severe;
Draize test, rabbit, eye: 500 mg/24H Mild;
Draize test, rabbit, skin: 500 mg/24H Mild;
Inhalation, rat: LC50 = 1000 ppm/7H;
Oral, mouse: LD50 = 413 mg/kg;
Oral, rabbit: LD50 = 860 mg/kg;
Oral, rat: LD50 = 670 mg/kg;
Skin, rabbit: LD50 = 2800 mg/kg;<BR.
Carcinogenicity:
CAS# 107-06-2:
ACGIH: A4 - Not Classifiable as a Human Carcinogen
California: carcinogen; initial date 10/1/87
NIOSH: potential occupational carcinogen
NTP: Suspect carcinogen
OSHA: Possible Select carcinogen
IARC: Group 2B carcinogen
Epidemiology: IARC Group 2B: Proven animal carcinogenic substance of pote ntial
relevance to humans. IARC Group 2B: No data availa ble on human carcinogenicity,
however sufficient evi dence of carcinogenicity in animals.
Teratogenicity: See actual entry in RTECS for complete information.
Reproductive Effects: No information found.
Neurotoxicity: No information found.
Mutagenicity: No information found.
Other Studies: See actual entry in RTECS for complete information.
Acute effects
Chronic effects

Section 12 - Ecological Information
Ecotoxicity: Water flea Daphnia: 218mg/L; 48H; Bluegill/Sunfish: 430mg/L; 96H;

Static Fathead Minnow: 136mg/L; 96H; Static No data available.
Environmental: Terrestrial: Smaller releases on land will evaporate fairly rapidly.
Larger releases may leach rapidly through sandy soil into groundwater. Aquatic: If
released to surface water, its primary loss will be by evaporation. The half-life for
evaporation will depend on wind and mixing conditions and was of the order of hours
in the laboratory. However a modeling study using the EXAMS model for a eutrophic
lake gave a half-life of 10 days. Atmospheric: Will degrade by reaction with hydroxyl
radicals formed photochemically in the atmosphere. Half-life over one month.
Physical: Not expected to biodegrade or bioconcentrate.
Other: For more information, see "HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND
EXPOSURE DATA."
Section 13 - Disposal Considerations

Chemical waste generators must determine whether a discarded chemical is
classified as a hazardous waste. US EPA guidelines for the classification
determination are listed in 40 CFR Parts 261.3. Additionally, waste generators must
consult state and local hazardous waste regulations to ensure complete and accurate
classification.
RCRA P-Series: None listed.
RCRA U-Series: CAS# 107-06-2: waste number U077.

Section 14 - Transport Information
US DOT
Shipping
Name:
IATA
ETHYLENE
DICHLORIDE
RID/ADR
IMO
Canada
TDG
No
information
available.
Hazard Class: 3
UN Number:
UN1184
Packing Group: II


Section 15 - Regulatory Information
US FEDERAL
TSCA
CAS# 107-06-2 is listed on the TSCA inventory.
Health & Safety Reporting List
CAS# 107-06-2: Effective Date: 6/1/87; Sunset Date: 6/1/97
Chemical Test Rules
None of the chemicals in this product are under a Chemical Test Rule.
Section 12b
None of the chemicals are listed under TSCA Section 12b.
TSCA Significant New Use Rule
None of the chemicals in this material have a SNUR under TSCA.
SARA
U.S. regulatory
information
CERCLA Hazardous Substances and corresponding RQs

CAS# 107-06-2: 100 lb final RQ; 45.4 kg final RQ
SARA Section 302 Extremely Hazardous Substances
None of the chemicals in this product have a TPQ.
SARA Codes
CAS # 107-06-2: acute, chronic, flammable.
Section 313
This material contains 1,2-Dichloroethane (CAS# 107-06-2, 99 9%),which is subject
to the reporting requirements of Section 313 of SARA Title III and 40 CFR Part 373.
Clean Air Act:
CAS# 107-06-2 is listed as a hazardous air pollutant (HAP). This material does not
contain any Class 1 Ozone depletors. This material does not contain any Class 2
Ozone depletors.
Clean Water Act:
CAS# 107-06-2 is listed as a Hazardous Substance under the CWA. CAS# 107-06-2
is listed as a Priority Pollutant under the Clean Water Act. CAS# 107-06-2 is listed as
a Toxic Pollutant under the Clean Water Act.
OSHA:
None of the chemicals in this product are considered highly hazardous by OSHA.
STATE
CAS# 107-06-2 can be found on the following state right to know lists: California,
New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Minnesota, Massachusetts.
The following statement(s) is(are) made in order to comply with the
California Safe Drinking Water Act: WARNING: This product contains 1,2Dichloroethane, a chemical known to the state of California to cause cancer.
California No Significant Risk Level: CAS# 107-06-2: 10 ug/day NSRL


European/International Regulations
European Labeling in Accordance with EC Directives
Hazard Symbols:
TF
Risk Phrases:
R 11 Highly flammable.
R 22 Harmful if swallowed.
R 36/37/38 Irritating to eyes, respiratory system
and skin.
R 45 May cause cancer.
Safety Phrases:
S 45 In case of accident or if you feel unwell, seek
medical advice immediately (show the label where
possible).
S 53 Avoid exposure - obtain special instructions
before use.
Foreign regulatory
information
WGK (Water Danger/Protection)

CAS# 107-06-2: 3
Canada - DSL/NDSL
CAS# 107-06-2 is listed on Canada's DSL List.
Canada - WHMIS
This product has a WHMIS classification of B2, D2A, D2B.
Canadian Ingredient Disclosure List
CAS# 107-06-2 is listed on the Canadian Ingredient Disclosure List.
Exposure Limits
CAS# 107-06-2: OEL-ARAB Republic of Egypt:TWA 5 ppm (2 mg/m3) OEL-A
USTRALIA:TWA 10 ppm (40 mg/m3) OEL-AUSTRIA:TWA 20 ppm (80 mg/m3) OEL
-BELGIUM:TWA 10 ppm (40 mg/m3) OEL-DENMARK:TWA 1 ppm (4 mg/m3);Skin
OEL-FINLAND:TWA 10 ppm (40 mg/m3);STEL 20 ppm (80 mg/m3);CAR OEL-FRAN
CE:TWA 10 ppm (40 mg/m3) OEL-GERMANY;Carcinogen OEL-HUNGARY:STEL 4 m
g/m3;Carcinogen OEL-JAPAN:TWA 10 ppm (40 mg/m3) OEL-THE NETHERLANDS:
TWA 50 ppm (200 mg/m3) OEL-THE PHILIPPINES:TWA 50 ppm (200 mg/m3) OE
L-RUSSIA:TWA 10 ppm OEL-SWEDEN:TWA 1 ppm (4 mg/m3);STEL 5 ppm (20 mg/
m3);Skin;CAR OEL-SWITZERLAND:TWA 10 ppm (40 mg/m3);STEL 20 ppm (80 mg
/m3) OEL-TURKEY:TWA 50 ppm (200 mg/m3) OEL-UNITED KINGDOM:TWA 10 ppm
(40 mg/m3);STEL 15 ppm (60 mg/m3) OEL IN BULGARIA, COLOMBIA, JORDAN,
KOREA check ACGIH TLV OEL IN NEW ZEALAND, SINGAPORE, VIETNAM check A
CGI TLV


Section 16 - Additional Information

MSDS Creation Date: 10/19/1998
Revision #6 Date: 4/17/2002
The information above is believed to be accurate and represents the best information currently available to us.
However, we make no warranty of merchantability or any other warranty, express or implied, with respect to
such information, and we assume no liability resulting from its use. Users should make their own investigations to
determine the suitability of the information for their particular purposes. In no event shall Fisher be liable for any
claims, losses, or damages of any third party or for lost profits or any special, indirect, incidental, consequential
or exemplary damages, howsoever arising, even if Fisher has been advised of the possibility of such damages.

Test: MSDS
A freight train has just derailed. It was pulling ten rail
tankers of ethylene dichloride from your plant. The local
fire chief calls the plant asking what should be done.
What do you do?

Role of MSDS in Process Design
Always collect MSDS of all components used in the process at as

early a stage as possible
Sources: manufacturers, manufacturers web sites, libraries, etc.
Because of disclaimers, it is worth checking > 1 source
Good starting points are http://www.msdssearch.com/ or
http://www.siri.org/msds
Use MSDS information to improve intrinsic safety of process

Eliminate incompatible mixtures
Substitute less hazardous chemicals when possible (e.g. toluene
instead of benzene as solvent)
Ensure that design meets regulatory requirements

Vapor recovery
Other emissions

Design for Materials Hazards
Substitution use something less toxic and hazardous
Containment
Sound design of plant and equipment
For example, use welded joints instead of flanges
Prevention of releases
By design of equipment and disposal systems
Ventilation
Use open plant structure or engineered ventilation system
Disposal
Effective vent stacks and scrubbers
Collection and treatment of run-off water and liquid from relief systems
Provision of emergency equipment

Process Hazards

Process Hazards: Overpressure

Occurs when mass, moles or energy accumulate in a
contained volume (or space with restricted outflow)
Rate of accumulation determines the pressure rise
Process controls may not be able to respond quickly
enough
If pressure is not relieved by pressure safety valve then
outcomes could include
Vessel rupture
Explosion
Other loss of containment
See following lecture for design for overpressure

Process Hazards: Fires & Explosions

A fire requires a flammable mixture and an ignition
source
Fires in chemical plants can quickly lead to damage to
control systems and equipment, causing overpressure,
loss of containment and explosions
Fire protection guidelines are given in several standards
(see Ch10)
NFPA 30, API RP 2001, API Publ 2218
Legal requirements for fire protection are set by OSHA

(29 CFR 1910 L)
Sources of Ignition
Can you think of possible sources of ignition on a
chemical plant?
Sparking of electrical equipment
Motors, actuators, lighting, electric heaters,
Process flames
Furnaces, flare stacks, incinerators
These should always be sited well away from plant, usually upwind
Static electricity
See API RP 2003 and NFPA 77
Lightning
Vehicles (engines, electrical systems and exhausts)
Portable electrical devices
Welding and cutting equipment
Miscellaneous sources (matches, lighters, etc. are usually
banned)

Process Electrical Systems

The use of electrical equipment in chemical plants is
regulated by law (OSHA standard 29 CFR 1910.307) and by
industry design codes
National Electrical Code NFPA 70
NFPA standards 496, 497, API RP 500, 505
NFPA 70 defines classified areas in which flammable

materials may be present at high enough concentrations to
be ignitable (see Ch10)
Specific precautions must be taken depending on the classification
Equipment must be designed and installed in accordance with code

Process Electrical Systems

Codes should be consulted
before selecting equipment for
use in classified areas
Codes also govern electrical
maintenance work (NFPA 70B).
Companies usually have strict
Lock-out, tag-out procedures
to prevent electric shock
accidents

Process Hazards: Explosions

An explosion is the sudden, catastrophic release of
energy causing a pressure wave (blast wave)
Explosions can be caused by ignition of a flammable
mixture
Liquid
Vapor
Solid (e.g., finely dispersed dust)
Explosions can also be caused by release of thermal

energy
Boiler rupture
BLEVE (boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion)
Explosion Definitions
Deflagration
Combustion zone propagates at (subsonic) flame speed, usually < 30 m/s

Pressure wave generated usually < 10 bar
Principal heating mechanism is combustion
Detonation
Combustion zone propagates at supersonic velocity, 2000 3000 m/s

Pressure wave up to 20 bar
Principal heating mechanism is shock compression
Usually requires confinement or a high-intensity source
Deflagration can turn into detonation when propagating along a pipe
Expansion factor
Measure of the increase in volume resulting from combustion

E = (molar density of reagents)/(molar density of products)
Maximum value of E is for adiabatic combustion
Flame speed
The rate of propogation of a flame front through a flammable mixture, with respect to a fixed
observer

Explosivity Properties
Fuel
Formula
Flammability Limits (vol%)

Upper
Lower
Vol% gas at
Maximum
max flame
flame speed
speed
(m/s)
54
22.1
Adiabatic
flame Temp
(K)
2318
Autoignition
temperature
(C)
6.9
400
Expansion
factor
Hydrogen
H2
4.0
75
Methane
CH4
5.0
15
10
2.8
2148
7.5
601
Ethane
C2H6
3.0
12.4
6.3
3.4
2168
7.7
515
Propane
C3H8
2.1
9.5
4.5
3.3
2198
7.9
450
n-Butane
C4H10
1.8
8.4
3.5
3.3
2168
7.9
405
Pentane
C5H12
1.4
7.8
2.9
3.4
2232
8.1
260
Hexane
C6H14
1.2
7.4
2.5
3.4
2221
8.1
225
Heptane
C7H16
1.1
6.7
2.3
3.4
2196
8.1
215
Acetylene
C2H2
2.5
80
9.3
14.8
2598
8.7
305
Ethylene
C2H4
2.7
36
7.4
6.5
2248
7.8
490
Propylene
C3H6
2.4
10.3
3.7
2208
7.8
460
Butylene
C4H8
1.7
9.7
3.9
3.8
2203
7.9
385
Benzene
C6H6
1.3
7.9
3.3
2287
8.1
560
Cyclohexane
C6H12
1.3
8.0
2.7
4.2
2232
8.1
245
Dugdale, D. An introduction to Fire Dynamics, Wiley, New York, 1985

Explosions: Design Implications

Design to prevent explosions from happening
Prevent formation of explosive mixtures whenever
possible
Operate outside flammability envelope
Consider confined explosion as a pressure relief

scenario and ensure that PRV is sized to allow adequate
relief load to prevent detonation
Use flame suppressors to prevent deflagration from
propagating into detonation
Process Hazards: Loss of Containment
The primary means of protecting the public from toxic chemicals is

containment by the plant itself
Loss of containment can occur due to:

Pressure relief
Operator error (e.g. leaving a sample point open)
Poor maintenance procedures
Failure to drain and purge properly
Failure to put everything back together properly
Leaks from degraded equipment

Corrosion
Damaged seals, gaskets
These are mostly operational issues, but design may need to provide
for secondary containment if the potential impact of a release is high

Process Hazards: Noise
Chemical plants can be very noisy, especially compressors, turbines,

motors and solids handling
Chronic effects include permanent damage to hearing
Sound is measured in decibels, defined by:

RMS sound pressure Pa
2 10 5
Sound level 20 log10
(Note: log scale)
dB
Ear protection should be required in areas where noise > 80 dB
Permanent damage can be caused by noise > 85 dB

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CHAPTER 3

PROCESS DESIGN AND SAFETY

Chemical Engineering Design

Chemical Engineering Design

2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

Chemical Engineering Design

2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

Chemical Engineering Design

Safety & Environment

The costs (human, social, economic) of non-compliance

Lax attitudes are reflected in insurance premiums, stock

Moral and ethical obligations

2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

Chemical Engineering Design

Major Chemical Plant Safety Legislation

Employers must provide a place of employment free from recognized

The Emergency Planning & Community Right-To-Know Act

The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA); 15 U.S.C. s/s 2601

2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

Chemical Engineering Design

Chemical Plant Hazards

2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

Chemical Engineering Design

2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

Chemical Engineering Design

Materials Hazards: Toxicity

Elimination or substitution of the most hazardous compounds

2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

Chemical Engineering Design

Threshold Limit Value (TLV) or Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL)

2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

Chemical Engineering Design

2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

Chemical Engineering Design

Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA)

Section 5 of TSCA requires submitting a pre-manufacture

Electronic version of PMN form can be downloaded from EPA

2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

Chemical Engineering Design

Materials Hazards: Flammability

Possible ignition sources include

Open flames from furnaces, incinerators & flare stacks

2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

Chemical Engineering Design

Data can be found in Materials Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) or safety

2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

Chemical Engineering Design

Flame arrestors (flame traps) are specified on vent lines of equipment

Various proprietary designs are available

2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

Chemical Engineering Design

Materials Hazards: Incompatibility

Acids and bases

Incompatibility with materials of construction can lead to

Materials incompatibility is one of the major sources of

Chemical Engineering Design

Materials Safety Data Sheets

Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs)

2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

MSDS contains the information needed

Most MSDSs contain a disclaimer

Chemical Engineering Design

Materials Safety Data Sheet