Atoms, Molecules

& Ions

Learning Objectives
To understand the submicroscopic

view of matter
To learn why and how elements and
compounds react in the ways they do
To know why they exhibit specific
physical and chemical properties

Highlights
Fundamental chemical laws

Law of constant composition

Law of conservation of mass(matter)
Law of multiple proportions
Atomic Theory
Periodic Table
Naming simple compounds

The Atomic Theory of

Matter

John Dalton:

Each element is composed of atoms

All atoms of an element are identical.
In chemical reactions, the atoms are not changed.

Compounds are formed when atoms of more than one

element combine.
Daltons law of multiple proportions: When two elements
form different compounds, the mass ratio of the elements
in one compound is related to the mass ratio in the other by
a small whole number.

Early Observations of Matter

- early 1700s

Lavoisier - Conservation of Matter

Careful measurements showed that mass is

neither created nor destroyed in a chemical
reaction.

Proust - Definite Proportions (composition)

A given compound always contains exactly the

same proportion of elements by weight.

Atomic Theory
- ca. 1800
mass of Oxygen
reacting w/ 1 g of Carbon
I
1.33 g
II
2.66 g

John Dalton - law of multiple proportions

When elements form a series of compounds, the

ratio of the masses of the second element can
always be reduced to whole numbers.

Atomic Theory
- 1803-1807

Consider the formation of water and Hydrogen peroxide

8.0g of O2 + 1.0g H2

H2O

16.0g of O2 + 1.0g H2

H2 O2

The ratio of the mass of oxygen per hydrogen in the two compounds is 2:1

John Dalton - law of multiple proportions

When elements form a series of compounds, the

ratio of the masses of the second element can
always be reduced to whole numbers.

A New System of Chemical

Philosophy

John Dalton - 1808

Each element is made up of tiny particles called

atoms.
Atoms of a given element are identical.
Compounds are formed when atoms combine with
one another.
Chemical reactions involve reorganization of the
atoms - changes in the way they are bound together.

The Discovery of Atomic

Structure
Electrons are produced from various metals
- Thompsons experiment + CRTs
Thompsons plum pudding model
Millikans Experiment
Rutherfordss experiment
Radioactivity

The Discovery of Atomic

Structure
The ancient Greeks were the first to postulate that matter
consists of indivisible constituents.
Later scientists realized that the atom consisted of
charged entities.
Cathode Rays and Electrons
A cathode ray tube (CRT) is a hollow vessel with an
electrode at either end.
A high voltage is applied across the electrodes.

The Discovery of Atomic

Structure
Cathode Rays and Electrons
The voltage causes negative particles to move from the
negative electrode to the positive electrode.
The path of the electrons can be altered by the presence
of a magnetic field.
Consider cathode rays leaving the positive electrode
through a small hole.
If they interact with a magnetic field perpendicular to
an applied electric field, the cathode rays can be
deflected by different amounts.

The Discovery of Atomic

Structure
Cathode Rays and Electrons
The amount of deflection of the cathode rays depends
on the applied magnetic and electric fields.
In turn, the amount of deflection also depends on the
charge to mass ratio of the electron.
In 1897, Thomson determined the charge to mass ratio of
an electron to be 1.76 108 C/g.
Goal: find the charge on the electron to determine its
mass.

The Discovery of Atomic

Structure
Cathode Rays and Electrons

The Discovery of Atomic

Structure
Cathode Rays and Electrons
Consider the following experiment:
Oil drops are sprayed above a positively charged plate
containing a small hole.
As the oil drops fall through the hole, they are given a
negative charge.
Gravity forces the drops downward. The applied electric
field forces the drops upward.
When a drop is perfectly balanced, the weight of the drop
is equal to the electrostatic force of attraction between the
drop and the positive plate.

The Discovery of Atomic

Structure
Cathode Rays and Electrons

The Discovery of Atomic

Structure
Cathode Rays and Electrons
Using this experiment, Millikan determined the charge on
the electron to be 1.60 10-19 C.
Knowing the charge to mass ratio, 1.76 108 C/g,
Millikan calculated the mass of the electron: 9.10 10-28
g.
With more accurate numbers, we get the mass of the
electron to be 9.10939 10-28 g.

The Discovery of Atomic

Structure
Radioactivity
Consider the following experiment:
A radioactive substance is placed in a shield
containing a small hole so that a beam of radiation
is emitted from the hole.
The radiation is passed between two electrically
charged plates and detected.
Three spots are noted on the detector:
a spot in the direction of the positive plate,
a spot which is not affected by the electric field,
a spot in the direction of the negative plate.

The Discovery of Atomic

Structure
Radioactivity

The Discovery of Atomic

Structure
Radioactivity
Ahighdeflectiontowardsthepositiveplatecorresponds
toradiationwhichisnegativelychargedandoflowmass.
Thisiscalledradiation(consistsofelectrons).
Nodeflectioncorrespondstoneutralradiation.Thisis
calledradiation.
Smalldeflectiontowardsthenegativelychargedplate
correspondstohighmass,positivelychargedradiation.
Thisiscalledradiation.

The Discovery of Atomic

Structure
The Nuclear Atom
From the separation of
radiation we conclude that
the atom consists of neutral,
positively, and negatively
charged entities.
Thomson assumed all these
charged species were found
in a sphere.

The Discovery of Atomic

Structure

The Nuclear Atom

Rutherford carried out the following experiment:
A source of -particles was placed at the mouth of a
circular detector.
The -particles were shot through a piece of gold foil.
Most of the -particles went straight through the foil
without deflection.
Some -particles were deflected at high angles.
If the Thomson model of the atom was correct, then
Rutherfords result was impossible.

The Discovery of Atomic

Structure
The Nuclear Atom
In order to get the majority of -particles
through a piece of foil to be undeflected, the
majority of the atom must consist of a low
mass, diffuse negative charge the electron.
To account for the small number of high
deflections of the -particles, the center or
nucleus of the atom must consist of a dense
positive charge.

The Discovery of
Atomic Structure
The Nuclear Atom
Rutherford modified
Thomsons model as
follows:
assume the atom is
spherical but the positive
charge must be located
at the center, with a
diffuse negative charge
surrounding it.

The Electron: Part I

J.J. Thompson - 1897

Cathode rays can be deflected by electric and

magnetic fields.
The charge-to-mass ratio of an electron can be
determined.
1.76 x 108

C/g

The Electron: Part II

Robert Milikan - 1909

Charged oil droplets will fall at integral

rates between two charged plates.
The charge on the electron is 1.60 x 10-19C.

1.60 x 10-19 Coul = 9.09 x 10-28 g

Mass =
1.76 x 108 Coul/g

The Modern View of

Atomic Structure

The Modern View of

Atomic Structure

Isotopes, Atomic Numbers, and Mass Numbers

Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in the nucleus.
Mass number (A) = total number of nucleons in the
nucleus (i.e., protons and neutrons).
By convention, for element X, we write ZAX.
Isotopes have the same Z but different A.
We find Z on the periodic table.

Atomic Weights
The Atomic Mass Scale
1H weighs 1.6735 x 10-24 g and 16O 2.6560 x 10-23 g.
We define: mass of 12C = exactly 12 amu.
Using atomic mass units:
1 amu = 1.66054 x 10-24 g
1 g = 6.02214 x 1023 amu

Atomic Weights
Average Atomic Masses
Relative atomic mass: average masses of isotopes:
Naturally occurring C: 98.892 % 12C + 1.108 %
13
C.
Average mass of C:
(0.98892)(12 amu) + (0.0108)(13.00335) =
12.011 amu.
Atomic weight (AW) is also known as average
atomic mass (atomic weight).

Modern Atomic Structure

Particle
Electron
Proton
Neutron

Mass

Charge

9.11 x 10

-31

kg

-1

1.67 x 10

-27

kg

+1

1.67 x 10

-27

kg

nc

The magnitude of the charge on the electron

and proton is the same.

The Common Atom

10-10 m
atomic number
mass number

10-15 m
3
7

Li

element symbol

Isotopes
The number of neutrons can vary
within any given element.

Li, 7Li
11C, 12C, 13C
6

What You Should Know

Atomic Theory of matter
Discovery of atomic structure
Modern view of atomic

structure
Relative atomic weights and
calculations

What You Should Know

Describe the nuclear model for the atom and identify the numbers of
protons, electrons, and neutrons in a particular isotope from its
chemical symbol.
Calculate the atomic mass of an element from the masses and
abundances of its isotopes.
Explain the difference between a molecular formula and an empirical
formula.
Determine the number of atoms in a molecule from its chemical
formula.
Describe the arrangement of elements in the periodic table and explain
the usefulness of the table.

What You Should Know(2)

Determine the correct chemical formula
from a line drawing of an organic molecule.
Use standard chemical nomenclature to
deduce the names of simple inorganic
compounds from their formulas or vice
versa.