Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Chapter 10
Nervous System
Functions:
Sensory Input monitoring stimuli occurring inside
and outside the body
Integration interpretation of sensory input
Motor Output response to stimuli by activating
effector organs
Motor Function
decisions are acted
upon
impulses are
carried to effectors
Classification of Neurons
Sensory Neurons
afferent
carry impulse to
CNS
most are unipolar
some are bipolar
Interneurons
link neurons
multipolar
in CNS
Motor Neurons
multipolar
carry impulses away
from CNS
carry impulses to
effectors
Generalized Neuron
Neuron Structure
Processes
Extensions from the nerve cell body. The CNS
contains both neuron cell bodies and their processes.
The PNS consists mainly of neuron processes.
Two types: Axons and Dendrites
Bundles of neuron processes are called
Tracts in the CNS and Nerves in the PNS
Dendrites
Short, tapering, diffusely branched processes
The main receptive, or input regions of the neuron
(provide a large surface area for receiving signals
from other neurons)
Dendrites convey incoming
messages toward the cell body
These electrical signals are not
nerve impulses (not action
potentials), but are short distance
signals called graded potentials
Axons
Slender processes with a uniform diameter arising
from the axon hillock, only one axon per neuron
A long axon is called a nerve fiber, any branches are
called axon collaterals
Terminal branches distal ends are called the axon
terminus (also synaptic knob or bouton)
Axons: Function
Myelin Sheath
Whitish, fatty (protein-lipoid), segmented sheath
around most long axons dendrites are unmyelinated
Protects the axon
Electrically insulates fibers from one another
Increases the speed of nerve impulse transmission
Myelin Sheath
Formed by Schwann cells in the PNS
A Schwann cell envelopes
and encloses the axon with
its plasma membrane.
The concentric layers of
membrane wrapped
around the axon are the
myelin sheath
Neurilemma cytoplasm
and exposed membrane of
a Schwann cell
Myelination of Axons
White Matter
contains myelinated
axons
Gray Matter
contains
unmyelinated
structures
cell bodies, dendrites
Classification of Neurons
Bipolar
two processes
eyes, ears, nose
Unipolar
one process
ganglia
Multipolar
many processes
most neurons of
CNS
Classification of Neurons
Structural
Multipolar three or more processes
Bipolar two processes (axon and dendrite)
Unipolar single, short process
Neuron Classification
Functional
Sensory (afferent) transmit impulses toward the CNS
Motor (efferent) carry impulses away from the CNS
Interneurons (association neurons) lie between
sensory and motor pathways and shuttle signals
through CNS pathways
Astrocytes
CNS
scar tissue
mop up excess ions, etc
induce synapse formation
connect neurons to blood
vessels
Ependyma
CNS
ciliated
line central canal of spinal cord
line ventricles of brain
Astrocytes
Satellite Cells
Microglia
Schwann Cells
Ependymal Cells
Oligodendrocytes
Outnumber neurons in the CNS by 10 to 1, about
the brains mass.
Astrocytes
Most abundant, versatile, highly branched glial cells
Cling to neurons, synaptic endings, and cover nearby
capillaries
Support and brace neurons
Anchor neurons to nutrient
supplies
Guide migration of young neurons
Aid in synapse formation
Control the chemical environment (recapture K+ ions
and neurotransmitters)
Microglia
Microglia small, ovoid cells with long spiny
processes that contact nearby neurons
When microorganisms or dead neurons are
present, they can transform into phagocytic cells
Ependymal Cells
Ependymal cells range in shape from squamous to
columnar, many are ciliated
Line the central cavities of the brain and spinal
column
Oligodendrocytes
Oligodendrocytes branched cells that line the thicker
CNS nerve fibers and wrap around them, producing an
insulating covering the Myelin sheath
Neurophysiology
Neurons are highly irritable (responsive to stimuli)
Action potentials, or nerve impulses, are:
Electrical impulses conducted along the length
of axons
Always the same regardless of stimulus
The underlying functional feature of the
nervous system
Definitions
Voltage (V) measure of potential energy between
two points generated by a charge separation
(Voltage = Potential Difference = Potential)
Current (I) the flow of electrical charge
Resistance (R) tendency to oppose the current
Units: V (volt), I (ampere), R (ohm)
Insulator substance with high electrical resistance
Conductor substance with low electrical resistance
Ohms Law
The relationship between voltage, current, and
resistance is defined by Ohms Law
Voltage (V)
Current (I) =
Resistance (R)
In the body, electrical current is the flow of ions
(rather than free electrons) across membranes
A Potential Difference exists when there is a
difference in the numbers of + and ions on either
side of the membrane
Ligand-Gated Channel
Example: Na+-K+ gated channel
Closed when a neurotransmitter is not bound to the
extracellular receptor
Open when a neurotransmitter is attached to the receptor Na+ enters the cell and K+ exits the cell
Voltage-Gated Channel
Example: Na+ channel
Closed when the intracellular environment is negative
Open when the intracellular environment is positive Na+ can enter the cell
Electrochemical Gradient
Ions flow along their chemical gradient when they
move from an area of high concentration to an area
of low concentration
Ions flow along their electrical gradient when they
move toward an area of opposite charge
Together, the electrical and chemical gradients
constitute the ELECTROCHEMICAL GRADIENT
Ion Channels
When gated ion channels open, ions diffuse across the
membrane following their electrochemical gradients.
This movement of charge is an electrical current and
can create voltage change across the membrane.
Voltage (V) = Current (I) x Resistance (R)
Ion movement (flow) along electrochemical
gradients underlies all the electrical phenomena in
neurons.
Levels of Polarization
Graded Potentials
Short-lived, local changes in membrane potential
(either depolarizations or hyperpolarizations)
Cause currents that decreases in magnitude with
distance
Their magnitude varies directly with the strength of
the stimulus the stronger the stimulus the more the
voltage changes and the farther the current goes
Sufficiently strong graded potentials can initiate
action potentials
Graded Potentials
Depolarization Phase
Na+ activation gates open quickly and Na+ enters
causing local depolarization which opens more
activation gates and cell interior becomes
progressively less negative. Rapid depolarization and
polarity reversal.
Threshold a critical level of depolarization
(-55 to -50 mV) where
depolarization becomes
self-generating
Positive Feedback?
Repolarization Phase
Positive intracellular charge opposes further Na+ entry.
Sodium inactivation gates of Na+ channels close.
As sodium gates close, the slow voltage-sensitive K+
gates open and K+ leaves the cell following its
electrochemical gradient and the internal negativity of
the neuron is restored
Hyperpolarization
The slow K+ gates remain open longer than is needed
to restore the resting state. This excessive efflux causes
hyperpolarization of the membrane
The neuron is
insensitive to
stimulus and
depolarization
during this time
Potential Changes
at rest
membrane is
polarized
threshold
stimulus reached
sodium
channels open
and membrane
depolarizes
potassium leaves
cytoplasm and
membrane
repolarizes
Impulse Conduction
Action Potentials
Propagation of an Action
Potential
Stimulus Intensity
All action potentials are alike and are independent
of stimulus intensity
How can CNS determine if a stimulus intense or
weak?
Strong stimuli can generate an action potential
more often than weaker stimuli and the CNS
determines stimulus intensity by the frequency of
impulse transmission
Refractory Periods
Saltatory Conduction
Current passes through a myelinated axon only at
the nodes of Ranvier
Voltage-gated Na+ channels are concentrated at
these nodes
Action potentials are triggered only at the nodes
and jump from one node to the next
Much faster than conduction along unmyelinated
axons
Saltatory Conduction
Saltatory Conduction
Synapse
A junction that mediates information transfer from
one neuron to another neuron or to an effector cell
Presynaptic neuron conducts impulses toward
the synapse (sender)
Postsynaptic neuron transmits impulses away
from the synapse (receiver)
Types of Synapses
Axodendritic synapse between the axon of one
neuron and the dendrite of another
Axosomatic synapse between the axon of one
neuron and the soma of another
Other types:
Axoaxonic (axon to axon)
Dendrodendritic (dendrite to dendrite)
Dendrosomatic (dendrites to soma)
Synapses
Electrical Synapses
Less common than chemical synapses
Gap junctions allow neurons to be electrically
coupled as ions can flow directly from neuron to
neuron - provide a means to synchronize activity of
neurons
Are important in the CNS in:
Arousal from sleep
Mental attention and conscious perception
Emotions and memory
Ion and water homeostasis
Abundant in embryonic nervous tissue
Chemical Synapses
Specialized for the release and reception of chemical
neurotransmitters
Typically composed of two parts:
Axon terminal of the
presynaptic neuron containing
membrane-bound synaptic
vesicles
Receptor region on the
dendrite(s) or soma of the
postsynaptic neuron
Synaptic Cleft
Fluid-filled space separating the presynaptic and
postsynaptic neurons, prevents nerve impulses from
directly passing from one neuron to the next
Transmission across the synaptic cleft:
Is a chemical event (as opposed to an electrical
one)
Ensures unidirectional communication between
neurons
Synaptic Delay
Neurotransmitter must be released, diffuse across
the synapse, and bind to receptors (0.3-5.0 ms)
Synaptic delay is the rate-limiting step of neural
transmission
Postsynaptic Potentials
Neurotransmitter receptors mediate graded changes
in membrane potential according to:
The amount of neurotransmitter released
The amount of time the neurotransmitter is
bound to receptors
The two types of postsynaptic potentials are:
EPSP excitatory postsynaptic potentials
IPSP inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
Excitatory Postsynaptic
Potentials
EPSPs are local graded depolarization events that
can initiate an action potential in an axon
Na+ and K+ flow in opposite directions at the
same time
Postsynaptic membranes do not generate action
potentials. The currents created by EPSPs
decline with distance, but can spread to the axon
hillock and depolarize the axon to threshold
leading to an action potential
Inhibitory Postsynaptic
Potentials
Neurotransmitter binding to a receptor at inhibitory
synapses reduces a postsynaptic neurons ability to
generate an action potential
Postsynaptic membrane is hyperpolarized due to
increased permeability to K+ and/or Cl- ions. Na+
permeability is not affected.
Leaves the charge on the inner membrane face
more negative and the neuron becomes less likely
to fire.
Summation
A single EPSP cannot induce an action potential
EPSPs must summate (add together) to induce an AP
Temporal Summation presynaptic neurons
transmit impulses in quick succession
Spatial Summation postsynaptic neuron is
stimulated by a large number of terminals at the
same time
IPSPs also summate and can summate with EPSPs.
Summation
Neurotransmitters
Chemicals used for neuron communication with
the body and the brain
More than 50 different neurotransmitters have
been identified
Classified chemically and functionally
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters Chemical
classification
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Biogenic amines
Amino acids
Peptides
Novel messengers: ATP and dissolved gases
NO and CO
Neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine
Released at the neuromuscular junction
Enclosed in synaptic vesicles
Degraded by the acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
Released by:
All neurons that stimulate skeletal muscle
Some neurons in the autonomic nervous
system
Neurotransmitters: Biogenic
Amines
Include:
Catecholamines dopamine,
norepinephrine, and epinephrine
Indolamines serotonin and histamine
Synthesis of Catecholamines
Enzymes present in
the cell determine
length of biosynthetic
pathway
Norepinephrine and
dopamine are
synthesized in axon
terminals
Epinephrine is released
by the adrenal medulla
Neurotransmitters: Peptides
Include:
Substance P mediator of pain signals
Beta endorphin, dynorphin, and
enkephalins
Act as natural opiates, reducing our perception
of pain
Bind to the same receptors as opiates and
morphine
Gut-brain peptides somatostatin and
cholecystokinin (produced by non-neural
tissue and widespread in GI tract)
Neurotransmitters: Novel
Messengers
ATP
Is found in both the CNS and PNS
Produces excitatory or inhibitory responses
depending on receptor type
Induces Ca2+ wave propagation in astrocytes
Provokes pain sensation
Nitric oxide (NO)
Activates the intracellular receptor guanylyl
cyclase
Is involved in learning and memory
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a main regulator of cGMP in
the brain
Functional Classification of
Neurotransmitters
Two classifications: excitatory and inhibitory
Excitatory neurotransmitters cause
depolarizations
(e.g., glutamate)
Inhibitory neurotransmitters cause
hyperpolarizations (e.g., GABA and glycine)
Neurotransmitter Receptor
Mechanisms
Direct: neurotransmitters that open ion
channels
Promote rapid responses
Examples: ACh and amino acids
G Protein-Linked Receptors
Responses are indirect, slow, complex,
prolonged, and often diffuse
These receptors are transmembrane
protein complexes
Examples: muscarinic ACh receptors,
neuropeptides, and those that bind
biogenic amines
G Protein-Linked Receptors:
Mechanism
Neurotransmitter binds to G protein-linked
receptor
G protein is activated and GTP is hydrolyzed to
GDP
The activated G protein complex activates
adenylate cyclase
Adenylate cyclase catalyzes the formation of
cAMP from ATP
cAMP, a second messenger, brings about
various cellular responses
G Protein-Linked Receptors:
Mechanism
G Protein-Linked Receptors:
Effects
G protein-linked receptors activate intracellular
second messengers including Ca2+, cGMP,
diacylglycerol, as well as cAMP
Second messengers:
Open or close ion channels
Activate kinase enzymes
Phosphorylate channel proteins
Activate genes and induce protein
synthesis
Divergence
one neuron sends
impulses to several
neurons
can amplify an
impulse
impulse from a
single neuron in
CNS may be
amplified to
activate enough
motor units needed
for muscle
contraction
Convergence
neuron receives input from
several neurons
incoming impulses represent
information from different
types of sensory receptors
allows nervous system to
collect, process, and respond
to information
makes it possible for a
neuron to sum impulses from
different sources
Clinical Application
Multiple Sclerosis
Symptoms
blurred vision
numb legs or arms
can lead to paralysis
Treatments
no cure
bone marrow transplant
interferon (anti-viral drug)
hormones
Causes
myelin destroyed in
various parts of CNS
hard scars
(scleroses) form
nerve impulses
blocked
muscles do not
receive innervation
may be related to a
virus