Chapter 8

Deformation of solids
10.1 Hookes law
10.2 Stress, Strain
10.3 Elastic & plastic behaviour

10.1 Behaviour of spring

Torsion Spring

Flat spring

Extension Spring

Compression Spring

Leave Spring
Spiral Spring

Hookes law
For systems that obey
Hooke's law, the
extension produced is
directly proportional to
the load.

F= -kx

restoring force always

acts in the opposite
direction of the x
displacement
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Example 1
What is the force required to stretch a
spring whose constant value is 100 N/m
by an amount of 0.50 m?

F = kx
= 50N

Example 2

0.0153kg

Parallel springs system

Fs
Fs
Original length = 15 cm
k = 2000 Nm-1
Load, F = 100 N
Extension of each spring, x = ____ F
Total length after loading = ______

Series springs system

Original length = 15 cm
Fs1
k = 2000 Nm-1
Load, F = 100 N
Fs2
Extension of each spring, x = ____Fs2
Total length after loading = ____
W
At equilibrium state,

Fs1 = Fs2

Fs2 = W
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Example 1:
A beam, the weight of which
may be neglected, is
supported by three identical
springs. When a weight W
is hung from the middle of
the beam, the extension of
each spring is x.
The middle spring and the
weight are removed.
What is the extension when
a weight of 2W is hung from
the middle of the beam?
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Example 2:
A number of similar springs,
each having the same spring
constant, are joined in three
arrangements X, Y and Z.
The same load is applied to
each. What is the order of
increasing extension for
these arrangements?

10.2 Stress, Strain

The behaviour of materials under tension or
compression
Strength: the ability of material to withstand a
force without breaking.

Stiffness: the resistance of m. to changes it shape.

Elasticity: the property of material that allow it to
return to its original shape & size after force
deforming it has been removed.
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Check your understanding

Compare the degree of strength and stiffness
of the material below:
Strength
Stiffness
Concrete pile

High

High

Biscuit

Low

High

Jelly

Low

Low

Glass reinforce
plastic

High

Medium

Nylon

High

Low
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Stress,
Is defined as force applied per unit area of
cross-section.
=F/A
Unit: Pascal (Pa) or N/m2
Tensile
stress

compressive
stress

Eg: applied force, F = 30N, Area, A= 0.03m 2

stress = 1000 N/m2
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Example 1:
The high-tensile steel
used to support the
roadway of a suspension
bridge breaks under a
stress of 1.54 x 109 Pa.
Find the minimum crosssectional area for a cable if
it is to support a load of
mass 2.0 x 105kg.

Youngjong Bridge, Korea

12.7cm2

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Strain,
Is defined as the
extension per unit
length
Unit: No unit!!!

=L /L

For example:
Initial length of a spring is 15cm, after apply
load, the spring extended 3 cm.
The strain is 0.2
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Young modulus
is a measure of stiffness.
The ration of stress to strain is called a
modulus of elasticity.
For tensile stress and strain, the ratio is
called Young modulus, E.
Unit: Pascal (Pa) or N/m2

FL
E
AL
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Example 1:
A wire of diameter 1.0mm and length 2.3 m is
made of copper. 40 N load is applied on the
wire. Find :
The radius of the cross-section
The strain if the wire is stretched by 0.85mm
The stress
The force necessary to cause this stress

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Example 2:
A wire is stretched by 8 mm when a load of
60 N is applied.
What will be the extension of a wire of the
same material having four times the crosssectional area and twice the original length,
when the same load is applied?
A 2 mm
B 4 mm
C 8 mm
D 16 mm

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Example 3:
Nylon breaks when the stress within it
reaches 1x 109 Pa.
Which range includes the heaviest load
that could be lifted by a nylon thread of
diameter 1 mm?
A
2 N to 20 N
B
20 N to 200 N
C
200 N to 2000 N
D
2000 N to 20 000 N
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Experiment to determine E
The longer the wire, the more it extends for
a given tension.
When weight is applied, the wire stretches,
and the marker moves.
marker
The extension equal to
the change of marker
reading.
Wire diameter is
measured by m.m.s.g
Full article in page 107, book of Jim Breithaupt
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Some interesting values of E

DNA
spaghetti (dry)
cotton thread
plant cell walls

~ 10 8 Pa
~ 10 9 Pa
~ 10 10 Pa
~ 10 11 Pa

So, can you determine Young modulus value of your hair?

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Stress against strain graph

Gradient of the graph
= Young modulus

Stress / Nm-2

Strain
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Example 1:
There are four wires
of different material. If
the wires are
stretched by the same
force, which wire will
have the greatest
extension?
Length/m
Cross sectional
area/mm2

Stress
A
B
C
D
Strain

A
1.0

B
2.0

C
2.0

D
1.0

0.50

1.00 0.50 1.00

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Strain (elastic) energy

When an object is
stretched, work is
done on the object,
and strain energy is
stored within which is
a form of potential
energy.
The strain energy in
the form of elastic
deformation is mostly
recoverable in the form
of mechanical work.

Force /N

Extension /m
e

W Fdx

Generally

1
W Fx
2

Area that obey

Hookes law
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Example 1:
The graph shows the
behaviour of a sample of a
metal when it is stretched until
it starts to undergo plastic
deformation. What is the total
work done in stretching the
sample from zero extension to
12.0 mm?
Simplify the calculation by
treating the region XY as a
straight line.
A 3.30 J

B 3.55 J

Force/N

C 3.60 J

D 6.60 J
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Example 2:
The tension in a spring of natural length l0 is first
increased from zero to T1, causing the length to
increase to l1. The tension is then reduced to T2,
causing the length to decrease to l2 .
Which area of the
graph represents the
work done by the
spring during this
reduction in length?

A MLP

B MNQP

C MNSR

D MPLU
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Example 3:
The graph shows how the
length of a particular
rubber cord varies as
force is applied.
What is the maximum
strain energy in this
deformed rubber cord?
A 2.5 J

B 5.0 J

C 7.5 J

D 10 J
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Graph L - F
The graph of
experiment using
copper and steel
are shown plotted
on the same axes.
Which material is
stiffer?
Steel : lower gradient of graph L - F
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10.3 Elastic & plastic behaviour

Extension < elastic
limit
Return to original
length
Obey Hookes law
except some polymer
Does not change
internal structure
Atoms are pulled apart
with distance < atomic
radius

Extension > elastic

limit
Does not return to
original length
Does not obey
Hookes law
Internal structure
changed
Atoms slip over one
another resulting
pile-up
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Graph stress - strain

E
U

Y
E

E : limit of proportionality
Y : yield point (plastic deformation begin)
U : ultimate tensile stress (max)
F : breaking point
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Stress-strain graph for

Glass (Brittle)

Typical metal (Ductile)

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Typical rubber
A rubber band
suspended vertically is
loaded with increasing
load to a maximum. The
load is then reduced
gradually to zero. The
graph below shows the
results obtained.
Within the elastic limit,
rubber does return to
zero extension when
unloaded completely.
So, can you sketch the
graph?

Hysteresis loop

31

Preliminary analysis tools compare

different concepts

http://www.dpgriffiths.com/images/cosmos-stress.jpg

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Example 1:
State whether copper is a
ductile, brittle or polymeric
material.
Mark with the letter L on
the diagram, the point on
the line beyond which
Hookes law does not
apply.

Extension of a copper wire

State how the spring constant for the wire

may be obtained from the above figure.
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Example 2:
What is the ultimate tensile stress of a
material?
A the stress at which the material becomes
ductile
B the stress at which the material breaks
C the stress at which the material deforms
plastically
D the stress at which the material reaches
its elastic limit
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Example 3:
The figure below is the
Stress
stress-strain graph for
X
three specimens X, Y, and
Z which have the same
dimensions. Which of the
following could be the
materials are made of?
Rubber, copper, glass?

Y
Z
Strain

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Example 4:
In describing the behaviour of a spring, the
spring constant is used. Different loads are used
to extend the spring by different amounts.
To find the spring constant, which quantities are
required?
A the elastic limit and the loads
B the elastic limit, extensions and the length of the
spring
C the loads and the extensions of the spring
D the loads and the length of the spring
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Example 5
A suspended copper wire is gradually loaded
until it is stretched just beyond the elastic limit,
and it is then gradually unloaded.
Which graph (with arrows indicating the
sequence) best illustrates the variation of the
tensile stress with longitudinal strain?

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