CS 455 Mobile Communications

Unit 1

Text Book Referred

Mobile Communications 2ed
By
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen Schiller

Mobile Communications CS455

Unit 1

Introduction to wireless
Networks

Applications
History of mobile communication
Simplified Reference Model
Wireless Transmission

Mobility and Wireless

All are interested in staying connected while on the go.

In the present scenario a plethora of devices and
applications are keen in communicating while they are
mobile.
Mobility may be of two types namely
User mobility the user can move and the services
follow the user.
Device portability the device moves and the
mechanism ensures the connectivity.

A mobile device accesses the network wirelessly.

i.e a wire is replaced by electro magnetic waves

Mobile communication
Two aspects of mobility:
user mobility: users communicate (wireless) anytime, anywhere, with anyone
device portability: devices can be connected anytime, anywhere to the network

Wireless vs. mobile

Examples
stationary computer (Fixed and wired)
notebook in a hotel (Mobile and wired)
wireless LANs in historic buildings (Fixed & wireless)
Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) (Mobile & wireless)

The demand for mobile communication created the need for integration of wireless
networks into existing fixed networks:
local area networks: standardization of IEEE 802.11,
ETSI (HIPERLAN)
Internet: Mobile IP extension of the internet protocol IP
wide area networks: e.g., internetworking of GSM and ISDN

Applications I
Vehicles

transmission of news, road condition, weather, music via Digital Audio

Broadcasting (DAB)
personal communication using Global System for Mobile (GSM)
position via Global Positioning System (GPS)
local ad-hoc network with vehicles close-by to prevent accidents, guidance
system, redundancy
vehicle data (e.g., from buses, high-speed trains) can be transmitted in advance for
maintenance and for logistics purpose.
Fleet management improves the organization by saving time and money.

Emergencies
High quality wireless connection to the hospital sends vital information about the
patient to the hospital from the scene of accident helps in early diagnosis with the
specialist.
replacement of a fixed infrastructure in case of earthquakes, hurricanes, fire etc.
crisis, war, ...

Typical application: road traffic

UMTS, WLAN,
DAB, GSM,
cdma2000, TETRA, ...

ad

c
o
h

Personal Travel Assistant,

DAB, PDA, laptop,
GSM, UMTS, WLAN,
Bluetooth, ...

Applications II
Travelling salesmen
direct access to customer files stored in a central location
consistent databases for all agents
mobile office

Replacement of fixed networks

remote sensors, e.g., weather, earth activities
flexibility for trade shows
LANs in historic buildings

Entertainment, education, ...

outdoor Internet access
intelligent travel guide with up-to-date
location dependent information
ad-hoc networks for
multi user games

History
Info

Location dependent services

Location aware services

what services, e.g., printer, fax, phone, server etc. exist in the local environment

Follow-on services

automatic call-forwarding, transmission of the actual workspace to the current

location

Information services
push: e.g., current special offers in the supermarket
pull: e.g., where is the Black Forrest Cherry Cake?

Support services

caches, intermediate results, state information etc. follow the mobile device
through the fixed network

Privacy

who should gain knowledge about the location

Mobile devices
Pager
receive only
tiny displays
simple text
messages

PDA
simpler graphical displays
character recognition
simplified WWW

Laptop
fully functional
standard applications

Sensors,
embedded
controllers

Mobile phones
voice, data
simple graphical displays

performance

Palmtop
tiny keyboard
simple versions
of standard applications

Effects of device portability

Power consumption

limited computing power, low quality displays, small disks due to limited
battery capacity
CPU: power consumption ~ CV2f

C: internal capacity, reduced by integration

V: supply voltage, can be reduced to a certain limit
f: clock frequency, can be reduced temporally

Loss of data

higher probability, has to be included in advance into the design (e.g.,

defects, theft)

Limited user interfaces

compromise between size of fingers and portability

integration of character/voice recognition, abstract symbols

Limited memory

limited value of mass memories with moving parts

flash-memory or ? as alternative

Wireless networks in comparison to fixed networks

Higher loss-rates due to interference

emissions of, e.g., engines, lightning

Restrictive regulations of frequencies

frequencies have to be coordinated, useful frequencies are almost all occupied

Low transmission rates

local some Mbit/s, regional currently, e.g., 9.6kbit/s with GSM

Higher delays, higher jitter

connection setup time with GSM in the second range, several hundred
milliseconds for other wireless systems

Lower security, simpler active attacking

radio interface accessible for everyone, base station can be simulated, thus
attracting calls from mobile phones

Always shared medium

secure access mechanisms important

Early history of wireless communication

Many people in history used light for communication
heliographs, flags (semaphore), ...
150 BC smoke signals for communication;
(Polybius, Greece)
1794, optical telegraph, Claude Chappe

Here electromagnetic waves are

of special importance:
1831 Faraday demonstrates electromagnetic induction
J. Maxwell (1831-79): theory of electromagnetic Fields, wave equations (1864)
H. Hertz (1857-94): demonstrates
with an experiment the wave character
of electrical transmission through space
(1888, in Karlsruhe, Germany, at the
location of todays University of Karlsruhe)

History of wireless communication I

1895

Guglielmo Marconi

first demonstration of wireless

telegraphy (digital!)
long wave transmission, high
transmission power necessary (> 200kw)

1907

1915
1920

Commercial transatlantic connections

huge base stations
(30 100m high antennas)

Wireless voice transmission New York - San Francisco

Discovery of short waves by Marconi

reflection at the ionosphere

smaller sender and receiver, possible due to the invention of the vacuum tube
(1906, Lee DeForest and Robert von Lieben)

1926

Train-phone on the line Hamburg - Berlin

wires parallel to the railroad track

History of wireless communication II

1928
1933
1958

1972

many TV broadcast trials (across Atlantic, color TV, TV news)

Frequency modulation (E. H. Armstrong)
A-Netz in Germany
analog, 160MHz, connection setup only from the mobile station, no handover,
80% coverage, 1971 11000 customers

B-Netz in Germany

analog, 160MHz, connection setup from the fixed network too (but location of
the mobile station has to be known)
available also in A, NL and LUX, 1979 13000 customer in D

1979
1982

1983
1984

NMT at 450MHz (Scandinavian countries)

Start of GSM-specification
goal: pan-European digital mobile phone system with roaming

Start of the American AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone

System, analog)
CT-1 standard (Europe) for cordless telephones

History of wireless communication III

1986

C-Netz in Germany

analog voice transmission, 450MHz, hand-over possible, digital signaling,

automatic location of mobile device
Was in use until 2000, services: FAX, modem, X.25, e-mail, 98%
coverage

1991

Specification of DECT

Digital European Cordless Telephone (today: Digital Enhanced Cordless

Telecommunications)
1880-1900MHz, ~100-500m range, 120 duplex channels, 1.2Mbit/s data
transmission, voice encryption, authentication, up to several 10000
user/km2, used in more than 50 countries

1992

Start of GSM

in D as D1 and D2, fully digital, 900MHz, 124 channels

automatic location, hand-over, cellular
roaming in Europe - now worldwide in more than 170 countries
services: data with 9.6kbit/s, FAX, voice, ...

History of wireless communication IV

1994

E-Netz in Germany

GSM with 1800MHz, smaller cells

As Eplus in D (1997 98% coverage of the population)

1996

HiperLAN (High Performance Radio Local Area Network)

ETSI, standardization of type 1: 5.15 - 5.30GHz, 23.5Mbit/s

recommendations for type 2 and 3 (both 5GHz) and 4 (17GHz) as wireless ATMnetworks (up to 155Mbit/s)

1997

Wireless LAN - IEEE802.11

IEEE standard, 2.4 - 2.5GHz and infrared, 2Mbit/s

already many (proprietary) products available in the beginning

1998

Specification of GSM successors

for UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System) as European proposals
for IMT-2000

Iridium

66 satellites (+6 spare), 1.6GHz to the mobile phone

History of wireless communication V

1999 Standardization of additional wireless LANs
IEEE standard 802.11b, 2.4-2.5GHz, 11Mbit/s
Bluetooth for piconets, 2.4Ghz, <1Mbit/s

Decision about IMT-2000

Several members of a family: UMTS, cdma2000, DECT,

Start of WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) and i-mode

First step towards a unified Internet/mobile communicaiton system
Access to many services via the mobile phone

2000 GSM with higher data rates

HSCSD offers up to 57,6kbit/s
First GPRS trials with up to 50 kbit/s (packet oriented!)

UMTS auctions/beauty contests

Hype followed by disillusionment (approx. 50 B$ payed in Germany for 6 UMTS

licences!)

2001 Start of 3G systems

Cdma2000 in Korea, UMTS in Europe, Foma (almost UMTS) in Japan

Simple Reference Model

Application

Application

Transport

Transport

Network

Network

Data Link
Physical
Radio

Network

Network

Data Link

Data Link

Data Link

Physical

Physical

Physical
Medium

Physical Layer
Converts the stream of bits into signals or vice versa (in wired)
Responsible for frequency selection, generation of the carrier frequency, signal
detection, modulation of data and encryption.

Data Link Layer

Accessing the media

Multiplexing of different data streams
Correction of transmission errors
Synchronization (i.e., detection of data frame)
Altogether responsible for reliable point to point connection two devices or
point to multipoint connection between one sender and several receivers.

Network Layer

Routing packets through a network or establishing connection between two

entities over many other intermediate systems.
Addressing
Routing
Device location
Handover between different networks

Transport Layer

Establishes end to end connection.

Takes care of quality of service &
Flow and congestion control

Application Layer

Service location
Support for multimedia applications
Adaptive applications that can handle large variations in transmission
characteristics
Wireless access to the web using portable device
Demanding applications are video (high data rate) and interactive gaming.

Frequencies
Signals
Antenna &
Signal propagation

Multiplexing
Spread spectrum
Modulation
Cellular systems

Frequencies for communication

twisted
pair

coax cable

1 Mm
300 Hz

10 km
30 kHz

VLF

LF

optical transmission

100 m
3 MHz

MF

VLF = Very Low Frequency

LF = Low Frequency
MF = Medium Frequency
HF = High Frequency
VHF = Very High Frequency

HF

1m
300 MHz

VHF

UHF

10 mm
30 GHz

SHF

EHF

100 m
3 THz

infrared

1 m
300 THz

visible light UV

UHF = Ultra High Frequency

SHF = Super High Frequency
EHF = Extra High Frequency
UV = Ultraviolet Light

Frequency and wave length:

= c/f
wave length , speed of light c 3x108m/s, frequency f

VLF Very Low Frequency LF Low Frequency.

Long waves, can penetrate water and follows earths surface.
Used by submarines
Used by some radio stations in Germany

MF Medium Frequency HF High Frequency

Typical transmission frequencies for radio stations either as Amplitude Modulation (AM)
or Short Wave (SW) or Frequency Modulation(FM)
SW is used by amateur radio transmission

VHF Very High Frequency UHF Ultra High Frequency.

TV station uses this frequency for transmission.
Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) uses this frequency.
UHF is used by
Mobile phones with analog technology.
Digital GSM uses 890 960 MHz , 1710 1880 MHz
DECT standard uses 1880 1900 MHz
3G cellular system uses 1900 1980 MHz, 2020 2025 MHz, 2110 - 2190 MHz
4G cellular System uses 2 - 8 GHz

SHF Super High Frequency.

Used by directed Microwave links

Frequencies and regulations

ITU-R holds auctions for new frequencies, manages frequency bands worldwide
(WRC, World Radio Conferences)
Cellular
Phones

Cordless
Phones

Wireless
LANs

Others

Europe

USA

Japan

GSM 450-457, 479486/460-467,489496, 890-915/935960,

1710-1785/18051880
UMTS (FDD) 19201980, 2110-2190
UMTS (TDD) 19001920, 2020-2025
CT1+ 885-887, 930932
CT2
864-868
DECT
1880-1900
IEEE 802.11
2400-2483
HIPERLAN 2
5150-5350, 54705725
RF-Control
27, 128, 418, 433,
868

AMPS, TDMA, CDMA

824-849,
869-894
TDMA, CDMA, GSM
1850-1910,
1930-1990

PDC
810-826,
940-956,
1429-1465,
1477-1513

PACS 1850-1910, 19301990

PACS-UB 1910-1930

PHS
1895-1918
JCT
254-380

902-928
IEEE 802.11
2400-2483
5150-5350, 5725-5825

IEEE 802.11
2471-2497
5150-5250

RF-Control
315, 915

RF-Control
426, 868

ITU R International Telecommunication Union Regulations located at Geneva

is responsible for coordination of telecommunication worldwide.
Divides the globe into following 3 regions
Region 1 Europe, middle east, countries of former Soviet Union, and Africa
Region 2 Greenland, North and South America
Region 3 Far East, Australia and New Zealand.
These regions have national agencies for further regulations.
Regions have national agencies for further regulations
Eg. Federal Communication Commission (FCC) in USA
European Conference for Posts and Telecommunication (CEPT)
ITU R holds world Radio Conference (WRC) periodically to discuss and
decide the frequency allocations for all the three regions.

Signals I

Physical representation of data

Function of time and location
Signal parameters represent the data values
Classification
Continuous time/discrete time
Continuous values/discrete values
Analog signal = continuous time and continuous values
Digital signal = discrete time and discrete values
Signal parameters of periodic signals:
period T, frequency f=1/T, amplitude A, phase shift
sine wave a special periodic signal for a carrier:
s(t) = At sin(2 ft t + t)

Fourier representation of periodic signals

1
g (t ) c an sin( 2nft ) bn cos(2nft )
2
n 1
n 1

0
t

ideal periodic signal

real composition
(based on harmonics)

Signals II

Different representations of signals

amplitude (amplitude domain)
frequency spectrum (frequency domain)
phase state diagram (amplitude M and phase in polar
coordinates) aka signal constellation diagram.
Q = M sin

A [V]

A [V]

t[s]

I= M cos

Amplitude domain

f [Hz]

Frequency domain

Phase domain

Signals
Representation in Time domain is problematic if there
are many different frequencies. In this case the better
representation is the Frequency domain.
Here the amplitude of a certain frequency part is shown
versus the frequency.
Arbitrary periodic functions has many peaks known as
frequency spectrum. Tool used is spectrum analyzer.
In phase domain M represents the amplitude of a signal
and the phase in polar coordinates.

Antennas: isotropic radiator

Antennas couple electromagnetic energy to and from space to

and from a wire or coaxial cable.
Antenna is an isotropic radiator.
Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three
dimensional) - only a theoretical reference antenna
Real antennas always have directive effects (vertically and/or
horizontally) i.e., the intensity of radiation is not the same in all
direction.
Radiation pattern: measurement of radiation around an antenna
y

z
x

ideal
isotropic
radiator

Antennas: simple dipoles

Real antennas are not isotropic radiators, e.g., dipoles with lengths /4 on car
roofs or /2 as Hertzian dipole
shape of antenna proportional to wavelength
/4

/2

Example: Radiation pattern of a simple Hertzian dipole

y

y
x

side view (xy-plane)

z
z

side view (yz-plane)

simple
dipole

top view (xz-plane)

Gain: maximum power in the direction of the main lobe compared to the
power of an isotropic radiator (with the same average power)

Antennas: directed and sectorized

Often used for microwave connections or base stations for mobile phones (e.g.,
radio coverage of a valley)
y

side view (xy-plane)

side view (yz-plane)

top view (xz-plane)

z

top view, 3 sector

directed
antenna

top view, 6 sector

sectorized
antenna

Directional antennas positioned in valleys or between

buildings are useful. They have a fixed preferential
transmission and reception direction.
The main lobe is in the direction of x axis.
Sectorized antennas several directed antennas are
combined on a single pole to construct a Sectorized
antenna.
Multi element antenna arrays two or more antennas
are combined to improve reception by counteracting the
negative effects of multi path propagation.

Antennas: diversity

/2

Grouping of 2 or more antennas /2

multi-element antenna arrays
Antenna diversity
switched diversity, selection diversity
receiver chooses antenna with
largest output
diversity combining
combine output power to produce
gain
cophasing needed to avoid
cancellation
ground plane

/2

/4

/2

/4

Signal propagation ranges (Wireless)

Transmission range
communication possible
low error rate
Detection range
detection of the signal
possible
no communication
possible
Interference range
signal may not be
detected
signal adds to the
background noise

sender
transmission
distance
detection
interference

Signal propagation
Propagation in free space always like light (straight line)
Receiving power proportional to 1/d
(d = distance between sender and receiver)
Receiving power additionally influenced by
fading (frequency dependent)
shadowing
reflection at large obstacles
refraction depending on the density of a medium
scattering at small obstacles
diffraction at edges

shadowing

reflection

refraction

scattering

diffraction

Real world example

Multipath propagation
Signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver due to
reflection, scattering, diffraction
multipath
LOS pulses pulses

signal at sender
signal at receiver

Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time

interference with neighbor symbols, Inter Symbol Interference (ISI)
The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted
distorted signal depending on the phases of the different parts
Signals travelling along different paths with different lengths arrive at the
receiver at different times. This effect is called delay spread. (the original
signal is spread due to different delays of parts of the signal)

Effects of mobility
Channel characteristics change over time and location
signal paths change
different delay variations of different signal parts
different phases of signal parts

quick changes in the power received (short term fading)

Additional changes in
distance to sender
obstacles further away

power

long term
fading

slow changes in the average power

received (long term fading)

short term fading

Multiplexing
Multiplexing in 4 dimensions

space (si)

channels ki
k1

time (t)
frequency (f)
code (c)

k2

k3

k4

k5

k6

c
t

c
t

Goal: multiple use

of a shared medium

s1

s2

Important: guard spaces needed!

t
s3

Frequency multiplex
Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency bands
A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the whole time
Advantages:
no dynamic coordination
necessary
k1
k2
k3
k4
works also for analog signals

k5

k6

Disadvantages:
waste of bandwidth
if the traffic is
distributed unevenly
inflexible
guard spaces
t

Time multiplex
A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of time
Advantages:
only one carrier in the
medium at any time
throughput high even
for many users

k1

k2

k3

k4

k5

k6

Disadvantages:
precise
synchronization
necessary
t

Time and frequency multiplex

Combination of both methods
A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain amount of time
Example: GSM
Advantages:
better protection against
tapping
protection against frequency
selective interference
higher data rates compared to
code multiplex

but: precise coordination

required

k1

k2

k3

k4

k5

k6

c
f

Code multiplex
Each channel has a unique code
All channels use the same spectrum
at the same time
Advantages:

k1

k2

k3

k4

k5

k6

bandwidth efficient
no coordination and synchronization necessary
good protection against interference and tapping

Disadvantages:

lower user data rates

more complex signal regeneration

Implemented using spread spectrum technology

t

Modulation
Digital modulation
digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband)
ASK, FSK, PSK - main focus in this chapter
differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness

Analog modulation

shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio carrier

Motivation
smaller antennas (e.g., /4)
Frequency Division Multiplexing
medium characteristics

Basic schemes
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation (PM)

Modulation and demodulation

digital
data
101101001

digital
modulation

analog
baseband
signal

analog
modulation

radio transmitter

radio
carrier

analog
demodulation
radio
carrier

analog
baseband
signal

synchronization
decision

digital
data
101101001

radio receiver

Digital modulation
Modulation of digital signals known as Shift Keying
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):

very simple
low bandwidth requirements
very susceptible to interference

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):

needs larger bandwidth

t

Phase Shift Keying (PSK):

more complex
robust against interference

Advanced Frequency Shift Keying

bandwidth needed for FSK depends on the distance between the

carrier frequencies
special pre-computation avoids sudden phase shifts
MSK (Minimum Shift Keying)
bit separated into even and odd bits, the duration of each bit is doubled
depending on the bit values (even, odd) the higher or lower frequency,
original or inverted is chosen
the frequency of one carrier is twice the frequency of the other
Equivalent to offset QPSK
even higher bandwidth efficiency using a Gaussian low-pass filter
GMSK (Gaussian MSK), used in GSM

Example of MSK
1

0
bit

data

even

0101

even bits

odd

0011

odd bits

signal
value

hnnh
- - ++

low
frequency

h: high frequency
n: low frequency
+: original signal
-: inverted signal

high
frequency

MSK
signal

t
No phase shifts!

Advanced Phase Shift Keying

Q

BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying):

bit value 0: sine wave

bit value 1: inverted sine wave
very simple PSK
low spectral efficiency
robust, used e.g. in satellite systems

10

11

QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying):

2 bits coded as one symbol
symbol determines shift of sine wave
needs less bandwidth compared to BPSK
more complex

00

01

Often also transmission of relative, not

absolute phase shift: DQPSK - Differential
QPSK (IS-136, PHS)

t
11

10

00

01

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): combines amplitude and phase
modulation
it is possible to code n bits using one symbol
2n discrete levels, n=2 identical to QPSK
bit error rate increases with n, but less errors compared to comparable
PSK schemes
Example: 16-QAM (4 bits = 1 symbol)
Symbols 0011 and 0001 have the same phase, but different amplitude.
0000 and 1000 have different phase, but same amplitude.
used in standard 9600 bit/s modems
Q

0010
0011

0001
0000
I
1000

Hierarchical Modulation
DVB-T modulates two separate data streams onto a single DVB-T stream
High Priority (HP) embedded within a Low Priority (LP) stream
Multi carrier system, about 2000 or 8000 carriers
QPSK, 16 QAM, 64QAM
Example: 64QAM
good reception: resolve the entire
64QAM constellation
poor reception, mobile reception:
resolve only QPSK portion
6 bit per QAM symbol, 2 most
significant determine QPSK
HP service coded in QPSK (2 bit),
LP uses remaining 4 bit

10
I

00
000010

010101

Spread spectrum technology

Problem of radio transmission: frequency dependent fading can wipe out narrow
band signals for duration of the interference
Solution: spread the narrow band signal into a broad band signal using a special
code
protection against narrow band interference
power

interference

spread
signal

power

signal

detection at
receiver
f
protection against narrowband
interference

Side effects:
coexistence of several signals without dynamic coordination
tap-proof

Alternatives: Direct Sequence, Frequency Hopping

spread
interference
f

Effects of spreading and interference

dP/df

dP/df

i)

user signal
broadband interference
narrowband interference

ii)
f
sender
dP/df

dP/df

dP/df

iii)

iv)
f

receiver

v)
f

Spreading and frequency selective fading

channel
quality

narrowband channels

4
frequency
narrow band
signal

guard space

channel
quality

spread
spectrum

spread spectrum channels

frequency

DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) I

XOR of the signal with pseudo-random number (chipping sequence)

many chips per bit (e.g., 128) result in higher bandwidth of the signal

Advantages
reduces frequency selective
fading
in cellular networks

base stations can use the

same frequency range
several base stations can
detect and recover the signal
soft handover

tb
user data
0

1
tc

chipping
sequence
01101010110101

Disadvantages

precise power control necessary

XOR

=
resulting
signal

01101011001010

tb: bit period

tc: chip period

DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) II

spread
spectrum
signal

user data
X
chipping
sequence

transmit
signal

modulator

radio
carrier
transmitter

correlator
received
signal

demodulator
radio
carrier

lowpass
filtered
signal
chipping
sequence

receiver

products
X

integrator

sampled
sums
decision

data

FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) I

Discrete changes of carrier frequency

sequence of frequency changes determined via pseudo random number sequence

Two versions
Fast Hopping:
several frequencies per user bit
Slow Hopping:
several user bits per frequency

Advantages
frequency selective fading and interference limited to short period
simple implementation
uses only small portion of spectrum at any time

Disadvantages
not as robust as DSSS
simpler to detect

FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) II

tb
user data
0

td

f3

slow
hopping
(3 bits/hop)

f2
f1
f

td

f3

fast
hopping
(3 hops/bit)

f2
f1
t

tb: bit period

td: dwell time

FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) III

narrowband
signal

user data
modulator

modulator

frequency
synthesizer

transmitter

received
signal

hopping
sequenc
e

spread
transmit
signal

narrowband
signal
demodulator

frequency
synthesizer

hopping
sequenc
e

data

demodulator

receiver

Cell structure
Implements space division multiplex: base station covers a certain transmission
area (cell)
Mobile stations communicate only via the base station
Advantages of cell structures:

higher capacity, higher number of users

less transmission power needed
more robust, decentralized
base station deals with interference, transmission area etc. locally

Problems:

fixed network needed for the base stations

handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary
interference with other cells

Cell sizes from some 100 m in cities to, e.g., 35 km on the country side (GSM) even less for higher frequencies

FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) III

narrowband
signal

user data
modulator

modulator

frequency
synthesizer

transmitter

received
signal

hopping
sequenc
e

spread
transmit
signal

narrowband
signal
demodulator

frequency
synthesizer

hopping
sequenc
e

data

demodulator

receiver

Cell structure
Implements space division multiplex: base station covers a certain transmission
area (cell)
Mobile stations communicate only via the base station
Advantages of cell structures:

higher capacity, higher number of users

less transmission power needed
more robust, decentralized
base station deals with interference, transmission area etc. locally

Problems:

fixed network needed for the base stations

handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary
interference with other cells

Cell sizes from some 100 m in cities to, e.g., 35 km on the country side (GSM) even less for higher frequencies

Frequency planning I
Frequency reuse only with a certain distance between the base stations
Standard model using 7 frequencies:

f4
f3

Fixed frequency assignment:

f5
f1
f2

f3
f6
f7

f2
f4

f5
f1

certain frequencies are assigned to a certain cell

problem: different traffic load in different cells

Dynamic frequency assignment:

base station chooses frequencies depending on the frequencies already
used in neighbor cells
more capacity in cells with more traffic
assignment can also be based on interference measurements

Frequency planning II
f3
f1
f2
f3

f2
f3
f1

f3
f1
f2
f3

f2
f3
f1

f3
f1
f2

3 cell cluster

f3

f2
f4
f3
f6

f5
f1
f2

f3
f6
f7
f5

f2
f4
f3

f7
f5
f1
f2

7 cell cluster

f2
f2
f2
f1 f
f1 f
f1 f
h
h
3
3
3
h 2
h 2
g2 1 h3
g2 1 h3
g2
g1
g1
g
1
g3
g3
g3

3 cell cluster
with 3 sector antennas

Cell breathing
CDM systems: cell size depends on current load
Additional traffic appears as noise to other users
If the noise level is too high users drop out of cells