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Algebras
What is an algebra?
Set of elements
Set of operators
Axioms or postulates
Why is it important?
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BASIC DEFINITIONS
A set is collection of having the same property.
If x = 2, then xS.
If y = 5, then y S.
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BASIC DEFINITIONS
The most common postulates used to formulate various
1. Closure: a set S is closed with respect to a binary operator if, for every
pair of elements of S, the binary operator specifies a rule for obtaining a
unique element of S.
a+b = c
But operator is not closed for N, because 2-3 = -1 and 2, 3N, but (-1)N.
(x * y) * z = x * (y * z) for all x, y, zS
(x+y)+z = x+(y+z)
x * y = y * x for all x, yS
x+y = y+x
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BASIC DEFINITIONS
4. Identity element: a set S is said to have an identity element with
respect to a binary operation * on S if there exists an element
eS with the property that
e * x = x * e = x for every xS
x*y=e
x * (y z) = (x * y) (x * z)
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George Boole
Father of Boolean algebra
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Boolean Algebra
Terminology:
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OR
NOT
xy
x+y
x'
1. Closure (+ and)
2. The identity elements
(1) +: 0
(2) : 1
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y+
z
x
(y+z)
x
y
x
z
(x y)+
(x z)
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Duality
The principle of duality is an important concept. This
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Basic Theorems
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Boolean Theorems
Huntingtons postulates define some rules
Post.
Post.
Post.
Post.
1:
2:
3:
4:
closure
(a) x+0=x,
(b) x1=x
(a) x+y=y+x, (b) xy=yx
(a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
(b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
Post. 5: (a) x+x=1, (b) xx=0
algebraic expressions
What is a theorem?
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Proof of x+x=x
We can only use
Huntington postulates:
= (x+x)1
= (x+x)(x+x)
= x+xx
= x+0
=x
Q.E.D.
Huntington postulates:
Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x1=x
Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) xy=yx
Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
(b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
Post. 5: (a) x+x=1, (b) xx=0
by 2(b)
by 5(a)
by 4(b)
by 5(b)
by 2(a)
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Proof of xx=x
Similar to previous Huntington postulates:
proof
Show that xx = x.
xx
= xx+xx
= x(x+x)
= x1
=x
Q.E.D.
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= xx+0 by 2(a)
by 5(b)
by 4(a)
by 5(a)
by 2(b)
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Proof of x+1=1
Huntington postulates:
Theorem 2(a): x + 1 = 1
x + 1 = 1 (x + 1)
=(x + x')(x + 1)
= x + x' 1
= x + x'
=1
by 2(b)
5(a)
4(b)
2(b)
5(a)
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DeMorgans Theorem
Theorem 5(a): (x + y) = xy
Theorem 5(b): (xy) = x + y
By means of truth table
x+y
(x+y)
xy
xy
x+y'
(xy)
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Operator Precedence
The operator precedence for evaluating Boolean
Expression is
Parentheses
NOT
AND
OR
Examples
x y' + z
(x y + z)'
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Boolean Functions
A Boolean function
Binary variables
Binary operators OR and AND
Unary operator NOT
Parentheses
Examples
F1= x y z'
F2 = x + y'z
F4 = x y' + x' z
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Boolean Functions
The truth table of 2n entries
F1
F2
F3
F4
F3 = F4
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Boolean Functions
Implementation with logic gates
F4 is more economical
F2 = x + y'z
F4 = x y' + x' z
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Algebraic Manipulation
To minimize Boolean expressions
Example 2.1
1. x(x'+y) = xx' + xy = 0+xy = xy
2. x+x'y = (x+x')(x+y) = 1 (x+y) = x+y
3. (x+y)(x+y') = x+xy+xy'+yy' = x(1+y+y') = x
4. xy + x'z + yz = xy + x'z + yz(x+x') = xy + x'z + yzx + yzx' =
xy(1+z) + x'z(1+y) = xy +x'z
5. (x+y)(x'+z)(y+z) = (x+y)(x'+z), by duality from function 4.
(consensus theorem with duality)
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A truth table
Sum of minterms
f1 = x'y'z + xy'z' + xyz = m1 + m4 +m7 (Minterms)
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= x'y'z'+x'yz'+x'yz+xy'z+xyz'
f1 = (f1')'
= (x+y+z)(x+y'+z) (x+y'+z') (x'+y+z')(x'+y'+z) = M0 M2 M3 M5 M6
f2 = (x+y+z)(x+y+z')(x+y'+z)(x'+y+z)=M0M1M2M4
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Sum of Minterms
Sum of minterms: there are 2n minterms and 22n
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Product of Maxterms
Product of maxterms: using distributive law to expand.
maxterms.
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F(A, B, C) = (1, 4, 5, 6, 7)
Thus, F'(A, B, C) = (0, 2, 3)
By DeMorgan's theorem
F(A, B, C) = (0, 2, 3)
F'(A, B, C) =(1, 4, 5, 6, 7)
mj' = Mj
Sum of minterms = product of maxterms
Interchange the symbols and and list those numbers
missing from the original form
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of 1's
of 0's
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Example
F = xy + xz
F(x, y, z) = (1, 3, 6, 7)
F(x, y, z) = (0, 2, 4, 6)
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Standard Forms
Canonical forms are very seldom the ones with the
F3 = A'B'CD+ABC'D'
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Implementation
Two-level implementation
F2 = x(y'+z)(x'+y+z')
Multi-level implementation
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Multiple Inputs
Extension to multiple inputs
OR
x+y = y+x
(x+y)+z = x+(y+z) = x+y+z
AND
xy = yx
(x y)z = x(y z) = x y z
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Multiple Inputs
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Multiple Inputs
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Multiple Inputs
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VLSI
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